^t  §.  p,  ^ill  pkarg 


^mtii  Carolina  ^tate  College 


S00603316   J 


This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated 
below  and  is  subject  to  an  overdue 
fine  as  posted  at  the  circulation  desk. 


EXCEPTION:  Date  due  will  be 
earlier  if  this  i^em  is  RECALLED. 


z. 


UN  1  t  2ifl 


A.^) 

0 


150M/01 -92— 941680 


SHEEP-FARMING  IN  NORTH  AMERICA 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO 
DALLAS   •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limitkd 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


SHEEP-FARMING 


IN 


NORTH  AMERICA 


BY  THE   LATE  , 

/  ■,(•'■' 

JOHN    A.  CRAIG 

PROFESSOR    OF    ANIMAL    HUSBANDRY    AT    THE    UNIVERSITY 
OF    WISCONSIN,    AND    IN    THE    IOWA    STATE    COLLEGE, 
AND    DIRECTOR    OF   THE    AGRICULTURAL    EXPERI- 
MENT   STATIONS    IN    TEXAS    AND    OKLAHOMA  ; 
AUTHOR     OF     "judging     LIVE     STOCK" 


THE  MAGMILLAN   COMPANY 
1920 

All  rights  reterved 


4^ 


CJOPTWQHT,   1913, 

Bt  the  macmillan  company. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  March,  19x3, 


Nartoooli  i^resB 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


LIBRARY 

N.  C.  state  College 


PREFACE 

No  branch  of  animal  husbandry  has  passed  through 
so  many  serious  changes  in  the  last  century  as  has 
the  sheep-raising  industry.  Established,  and  for 
many  years  continued,  with  wool  as  the  main  ob- 
ject, the  successive  changes  have  seemed  to  make 
the  mutton  side  of  sheep-raising  more  and  more 
important. 

The  more  comprehensive  books  upon  sheep  em- 
phasized wool-production  and  were  largely  devoted 
to  diseases.  The  present  volume  considers  the  sheep 
as  having  an  important  place  or  part  in  intensive 
stock-farming.  American  farmers,  as  a  rule,  are  not 
prepared  to  give  sheep  the  attention  they  will  repay, 
or  that  is  necessary  if  the  possibilities  of  employing 
them  in  the  utilization  of  high-priced  lands  are  to 
be  realized.  The  range  areas  devoted  to  sheep  are 
diminishing,  and,  as  the  industry  comes  to  have  a 
more  stable  position  on  general  farms,  the  supplies 
and  market  prices  may  be  expected  to  be  more 
uniform  than  in  the  past. 

While  he  was  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  at 
the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Professor  Craig  out- 
lined and  wrote  part  of  this  work,  assisted  by  the 

V 


vi  Preface 

late  William  Watson.  In  subsequent  years,  he 
added  to  the  work  the  results  of  his  investigation 
and  wide  observations  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  volume  planned  by  Professor  Craig 
was  to  have  been  more  exhaustive  than  the  present 
one,  and  was  to  have  contained  a  number  of  chapters 
pertaining  to  the  breeding  and  handling  of  sheep  on 
the  range.  As  it  now  appears,  the  volume  contains 
many  practical  ideas  that  are  the  outcome  of  devel- 
opments of  recent  years  and  are  not  found  elsewhere 
in  book  form.  In  the  final  preparation  the  endeavor 
has  been  to  preserve  the  author's  peculiar  faculty  of 
arousing  interest  in  the  study  of  the  sheep  and  for 
showing  the  possibilities  to  be  realized  from  workiag 
with  them. 

Chapters  11,  XII,  and  XV  are  the  work  of  Dr. 
H.  P.  Miller,  of  Sunbury,  Ohio,  who  has  had  extensive 
experience  with  all  phases  of  the  shepherd's  work, 
and  is  a  recognized  authority  on  the  ailments  of 
sheep. 

To  put  the  copy  into  final  shape  and  arrange  the 

illustrations   has   been   the  pleasant   work   of    the 

undersigned. 

F.  R.  MARSHALL. 

Univeestty  of  Califobnia. 


CONTENTS 


.       CHAPTER  I 

rAOES 

Position  of  Sheep  in  Profitable  Farming        .        .        .  1-9 

Natural  Conditions  for  Sheep 1 

Combining  Wool  and  Mutton 3 

Lands  for  Sheep 3 

Sheep  for  Intensive  Farming 4 

Peculiar  Advantages  in  Sheep-farming      ...  6 


CHAPTER  II 

Sheep  Farms  and  their  Equipment 10-19 

Number  of  Sheep  to  Farm 13 

Buildings 13 

Racks  and  Troughs 16 

"Watering  Troughs 18 

Fencing 18 


CHAPTER  III 

Breeds  of   Sheep 20-48 

Habits  of  Sheep 21 

Ancestry  of  Present-day  Sheep 23 

Early  Sheep-breeding  in  Europe       ....  25 

Formation  of  Breeds 27 

Classification  of  Breeds 28 

Classification  according  to  Face  Color       ...  28 

The  Wool  as  a  Basis  for  Classification        ...  28 

Classification  based  on  being  Polled  or  Horned         .  29 

Classification  based  on  Altitude        ....  29 

Influence  of  Altitude 30 

vii 


viii  Contents 

PAOU 

Adaptability  of  the  Breeds 33 

Effect  of  Altitude  on  Type 35 

Effect  of  Altitude  on  Size 36 

Climatic  Influence  on  Wool 37 

Influence  of  Food  on  "Wool 38 

Effect  of  Soil  on  Wool 39 

Establishment  of  American  Sheep-breeding    .        ,  40 

Improvement  in  America 42 

The  American  Merino 43 

Classes  of  American  Merino 44 

French  Merinos 46 

The  Rambouillet 46 


CHAPTER  IV 

British  Breeds  of  Sheep 49-134 

The  Leicester  Sheep 51 

The  Old  Leicester 51 

The  Work  of  Bakewell 52 

Appearance  of  Leicester 54 

Mutton  Qualities  of  Leicester 54 

Characteristics  of  the  Leicester  Fleece   ...  55 

Value  for  Feeding  Purposes 56 

Breeding  Qualities 66 

Adaptability 56 

The  Border  Leicester 67 

Standard  for  Border  Leicester          ....  68 

Differences  between  the  Leicester  Varieties     .        .  59 

Value  of  Border  Leicester  for  Crossing  on  Hill  Sheep  60 

Crossing  on  Fine-wooled  Sheep        ....  60 

The  Cotswold 61 

Home  of  the  Breed 63 

Improvement  of  the  Cotswold          ....  63 

Appearance  of  the  Cotswold 64 

Mutton  Qualities 65 

Wool-production 66 


Contents 


IX 


Grazing  Qualities 

Qualities  as  Breeders 

Value  of  Cotswolds  for  Grading 


The  Lincoln 

Improvement  of  the  Old  Lincoln 
The  Type  of  Old  Lincoln 
Live  Weights  attained  by  Lincolna 
Weight  and  Character  of  Fleece 
Breeding  Qualities  of  Lincolns 
Adaptability     .... 
Value  for  Grading    . 

Differences  in  the  Lowland  Breeds 


The  Southdown 

Origin  of  the  Southdown 

Improvement  of  the  Breed 

Work  of  John  Ellman  on  the  Southdowns 

Improvement  of  Southdowns  by  Jonas  Webb 

Appearance  of  Southdowns 

Description  of  Ideal  Southdown 

Production  of  Mutton  in  the  Southdown 

Quality  of  Mutton    . 

Qualities  of  the  Fleece 

Attributes  as  Breeders 

Adaptability     . 


The  Shropshire 

Original  Sources  of  Shropshire 
Improvement  of  the  Early  Shropshires 
Attaining  the  Status  of  a  Breed 
Type  of  Shropshires 
Position  as  Producers  of  Mutton 
The  Quality  of  Shropshire  Mutton   . 
Qualities  of  the  Shropshire  Fleece    . 
Characteristics  as  Breeding  Stock    . 
Utility  for  Crossing  .... 
Adaptability  of  Shropshire 

The  Hampshire 

The  Hampshire  Foundation  Stock   . 

The  Sources  of  Improvement  of  Hampshire 


Contents 

PAoas 

Extent  of  the  Hampshire  Improvement  .        .        ,  110 

Characteristics  of  the  Hampshire     ....  113 

Mutton  Qualities 114 

Characteristics  of  Hampshire  Fleece        .        .        .  116 

Attributes  for  Breeding  Purposes     ....  116 

Adaptability  of  Hampshire 117 

The  Oxford  Down 117 

Formation  of  Oxford  Down  as  a  Breed   .         .        .  118 

Qualities  desired  by  Breeders  of  Oxford  Downs       .  119 

Kecognition  as  a  Breed 120 

Characteristics  of  Oxfords 121 

Mutton  Qualities 122 

Fleece  Characteristics  of  Oxford  Down    .        .        .  123 

Breeding  Qualities 124 

Adaptability  of  Oxford  Down 125 

The  Suffolk 125 

The  Dorset  Horn 127 

The  Cheviot 131 

The  Black-faced  Highland 134 


CHAPTER  V 

Formation  op  a  Flock 136-146 

Pure  Breds  versus  Grades  for  Foundation  Stock      .  136 

Selecting  Foundation  Stock 137 

Breed  Type 139 

Judging  Sheep 141 

Deception  in  Form  due  to  Trimming       ...  142 

Quality 143 

The  Ram 143 

The  Ewe 144 

Need  of  Uniformity  in  the  Ewe  Flock      ...  145 

CHAPTER  VI 

The  Improvement  of  the  Flock 147-162 

Selection  of  Rams 147 


Contents  xi 

I  PAOES 

Study  of  Pedigrees 150 

Testing  Rams 151 

In-breeding  and  Line-breeding         ....  153 

Culling  the  Ewes 158 

Developing  the  Lamb 159 

Cross-breeding 160 


CHAPTER  VII 
Autumn  Management  of  the  Flock:         ....     163-174 

Sorting  the  Ewes 163 

Age  of  Breeding  Ewes 164 

Dentition  of  Sheep 165 

Breeding  Yearling  Ewes 167 

Time  of  Mating 167 

Need  of  having  Stock  in  Good  Condition         .        .  168 

Advantages  of  Flushing  Ewes          ....  168 

Ova  produced  by  Ewes 171 

The  Ram  in  the  Breeding  Season     ....  172 

Number  of  Ewes  to  a  Ram 173 

Marking  the  Bred  Ewes 174 


CHAPTER  Vm 
Winter  Management  of  the  Flock  ....     175-182 

Division  of  the  Flock  for  Wintering 


The  Breeding  Ewes  in  Early  Winter 
Roughages  for  Ewes 
Grain  for  Ewes  in  Lamb  . 
Accessories  to  the  Ration 
Rations  for  Rams     .... 


176 

177 
178 
180 
181 
181 


CHAPTER  IX 

Spring  Management  of  the  Flock 183-201 

Indications  of  Lambing 184 

Trimming  and  cleaning  Udders        ....  184 


xii  Contents 


Delayed  Lambing 184 

Avoiding  Disturbances  of  the  Ewe  ....  184 

Assistance  in  Lambing 185 

Natural  Presentation 185 

Wrong  Presentation 185 

Still-born  Lambs 189 

Removal  of  the  After-birth 189 

Possibility  of  a  Second  Lamb 190 

Assisting  the  Lamb 190 

Attention  at  Birth 190 

Marking  the  Lambs 191 

Weak  Lambs 192 

The  Division  of  Ewes  and  Lambs    ....  193 

Dry  Ewes  194 

Treatment  of  Unkindly  Ewes 194 

Care  of  Twins 194 

Hand-feeding  Lambs 195 

Foster  Mothers 196 

Feeding  Grain  to  Lambs 196 

Food  Previous  to  Weaning 197 

Quantity  of  Grain  to  Feed 197 

Feeding  Ewes  that  are  Suckling  Lambs  .        .        .  198 

Castration  of  Lambs 199 

Docking  the  Lambs 201 


CHAPTER  X 

Summer  Management  of  the  Flock         ....     202-218 

—    Salt  and  Sulphur 203 

—  Fresh  Water  Required 203 

Pasturing  Horses  with  Sheep 203 

Application  of  Tar 204 

Shade  in  Pastures 204 

Changing  the  Pastures 205 

Guarding  against  Worms 205 

Summer  Grazing  Crops 206 

Weaning 209 

Time  for  Shearing 212 

Manner  of  Shearing 213 


Contents  xiii 

PAGES 

Washing  before  Shearing 214 

Place  for  Shearing 214 

Tying  the  Fleece 215 

Dipping 216 


CHAPTER  XI 

Wool 219-228 

Density 219 

Length  of  Staple 220 

Examining  the  Fleece 221 

Fineness 222 

Shrinkage  of  Wool 223 

Market  Grades 223 

Table  showing  Weight  of  Fleece,  etc.      .        .        .  224 


CHAPTER  XII 

Eablt  Lamb  Raising 

The  Breeding  Flock 230 

Management  at  Mating  Season        ....  231 

Management  of  Ewe  and  Lamb       ....  232 

Feeding  the  Lambs 234 

Marketing  the  Lambs 235 

Equipment  for  Butchering 236 

Shipping 237 

Docking  and  Castrating 237 

Markets 238 

Buildings 238 

Floor  Space 239 


CHAPTER  Xm 

Fattening  Sheep 240-261 

^—  Age  at  which  to  Feed  Grain 240 

—  Com  for  Fattening  Sheep 247 

^ .  Oats 247 


xiv  Contents 

Peas 248 

Bran 248 

Wheat 249 

Barley 249 

Soy  Beans 249 

Roughages  for  Fattening  Sheep        ....  249 

Sorghum  Hay 252 

Silage 262 

Fattening  Lambs  on  Rape 253 

Rape  and  Pasture 254 

Precaution  Necessary  in  Feeding  Rape     .        .        .  255 

Shearing  Lambs  before  Fattening  Them  .        .  255 

Shearing  in  October 256 

System  of  Feeding 256 

Essentials  in  Management 257 

Quantity  to  Feed 257 

Cost  and  Value  of  the  Licrease        ....  258 

Buying  Sheep  to  Fatten 259 


CHAPTER  XrV 

Preparation  of  Sheep  for  Show 262-277 

Importance  of  Breeding 262 

Time  of  Birth 263 

Large  Number  Needed 263 

Matching  Sheep 263 

Shed  or  Field  Feeding 264 

Attention  to  the  Feet 265 

Variety  of  Foods  Required 265 

Sustaining  the  Appetite 266 

Feeding  during  Summer 266 

Oyerfeeding  Possible 267 

How  Smithfield  Winners  were  Fed ....  268 

How  Chicago  Winners  were  Fed      ....  269 

Use  of  Jackets 270 

Washing  before  Trimming 271 

Stubble  Shearing 271 

Trimming 271 

Carding  Fleece 272 


Contents 


XV 


PAGES 

Frequency  of  Trimming 273 

Oiling  the  Fleece 273 

Firming  the  Fleece 274 

Trimming  Long-wooled  Sheep          ....  274 

Treatment  of  Long-wooled  Fleeces  ....  274 

Process  of  Felting 276 

Coloring 275 

Material  used  for  Coloring 276 

Aftertreatment  of  Show  Sheep         ....  277 


CHAPTER  XV 

Diseases 278-298 

Parasitism 278 

Gid,  Turn-sickness  or  Sturdy 278 

Tapeworms  of  the  Sheep 280 

Intestinal  Roundworms 281 

Medicinal  Preventives 282 

The  Stomach  Worm 283 

Lung-worms,  Hoose,  Husk 284 

Grub  in  the  Head 285 

Catarrh 286 

Dysentery,  Scours 286 

Constipation,  Stretches 287 

Colic 288 

Abortion,  Slinking 288 

E version  of  Uterus,  Casting  of  Withers   ...  289 

Garget,  Caked  Udder 290 

White  Dysentery  in  Lambs 290 

Joint-ill 291 

Lamb  Cholera 291 

Calculi,  Gravel 292 

Entropia,  Sore  Eyes 293 

Pink  Eye 294 

Goiter •         •  294 

External  Parasites 294 

The  Scab .295 

The  Tick 296 


XVI 


Contents 


PAOBB 

Sheep  Lice 296 

Maggots 296 

Aphtha 297 

Wool  Pulling 297 

CottedWool 298 

Administration  of  Medicines 298 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

no.                                                                                                                                                           TAOINa  PAOK 

1.  Rack  for  Feeding  Silage 16 

2.  Rack  for  Feeding  Hay  or  Silage 16 

3.  Same,  Closed 16 

4.  Rack  for  Feeding  Hay  and  Grain 16 

5.  Same,  End  View 17 

6.  Box  Rack  for  Feeding  Hay 17 

7.  Trough  for  Feeding  Grain  Only 17 

8.  A  Reversible  Grain  Trough 17 

9.  Barrel  Watering-trough .17 

10.  An  "  A  "  Type  Merino  Ram,  Plate  I         ....  43 

11.  Prize  Ewe  of  "  A  "  Type,  Plate  I 43 

12.  Prize  Rambouillet  Ewe,  Plate  II 50 

13.  Cotswold  Ewe,  Plate  II 50 

14.  Flockof"C"  Delaine  Ewes,  Plate  III     ....  58 

15.  Group  of  Cotswold  Rams,  Plate  III 58 

16.  Winning  Lincoln  Ewe,  Plate  IV 63 

17.  Southdown  Ram,  Plate  IV 63 

18.  Prize  Southdown  Wether,  Plate  V 70 

19.  Prize  Lincoln  Ram,  Plate  V 70 

20.  Southdown  Ewe  Flock,  Plate  VI 75 

21.  Good  Type  of  Shropshire,  Plate  VII         ....  79 

22.  Champion  American-bred  Shropshire  Ewe,  Plate  VII     .  79 

23.  Premium-winning  Shropshires,  Plate  VHI       ...  86 

24.  Cheviot  Ram  and  Ewe,  Plate  IX 105 

25.  Prize  Hampshire  Flock,  Plate  IX 105 

26.  Champion  Oxford  Ram,  Plate  X 115 

27.  Champion  Oxford  Ewe,  Plate  X 115 

28.  Dorset  Ram 131 

29.  Feeling  Fullness  of  Neck,  Plate  XI 135 

30.  Estimating  Depth  of  Chest,  Plate  XI       .        .        .        .135 

zvii 


xvm 


Illustrations 


na. 

31.  Determining  the  Girth,  Plate  XII     . 

32.  Determining  Levelness  of  Back,  Plate  XII 

33.  Taking  Width  of  Loin,  Plate  Xin  . 

34.  Width  of  Body,  Plp+^e  XIII       .... 

35.  Leg  of  Mutton,  Plate  XIV        .... 

36.  Manner  of  Testing  Quality  of  Wool,  Plate  XIV 

37.  38.   Shearing  the  Sheep,  Plate  XV     .        .         . 
39,  40.   Shearing  the  Sheep,  Plate  XVI  . 

41,  42.   Shearing  the  Sheep,  Plate  XVII 
43,  44.   Shearing  the  Sheep,  Plate  XVIII 
45,  46.   Shearing  the  Sheep,  Plate  XIX  . 

47.  Shearing  the  Sheep,  Plate  XX 

48.  Well-tied  Fleece,  Plate  XX       ...        . 

49.  Rack  on  which  to  hang  Lambs  for  Butchering 

50.  Killing,  Plate  XXI 

51.  Carcasses  hung  to  Cool,  Plate  XXI  . 

52.  53.   Carding  the  Fleece,  Plate  XXII 

54.  Leveling  the  Fleece,  Plate  XXIII     . 

55.  Trimming  Sides  of  Fleece,  Plate  XXIII  . 


FACING   PAGB 

139 
139 
143 
143 
150 
150 
209 
211 
212 
217 
219 
221 
221 
236 
237 
237 
273 
276 
276 


SHEEP-FARMING  IN  NORTH  AMERICA 


SHEEP-FARMING 


CHAPTER  I 

POSITION  OF  SHEEP  IN  PROFITABLE 
FARMING 

The  sheep  occupies  a  unique  place  among  domes- 
tic animals.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to 
have  been  bred  in  captivity,  and  there  is  hardly  a 
part  of  the  world  where  it  has  not  been  reared  ex- 
tensively. Although  of  such  great  age  and  so  widely 
known,  its  management  is  less  understood  by  land- 
owners in  general  than  is  the  management  of  cattle, 
horses,  or  swine.  This  is  because  it  has  not  been 
generally  considered  as  adapted  to  the  utilization  of 
rich  arable  lands  in  sections  in  which  intensified 
farming  has  to  be  practiced.  English  farmers  fur- 
nish an  exception  to  this  statement.  There  are 
many  matters  of  recent  development  that  make  it 
appear  that  the  possibilities  of  sheep-raising  are  to 
be  appraised  more  highly  in  the  future  by  American 
farmers. 

Natural  conditions  for  sheep.  —  In  the  natural  state, 
sheep  inhabit  only  the  high  altitudes,  and  the  growth 
of  wool  is  necessary  to  protect  them  from  the  low 


2  Sheep-Farming 

temperatures  of  such  regions.  They  naturally  cover 
a  large  range  of  country  in  procuring  their  food  and 
feed  on  a  wide  variety  of  plants.  Under  usual 
range  conditions,  sheep  are  not  greatly  removed  from 
such  natural  environments.  The  herders  keep  the 
flocks  banded  suflficiently  close  to  prevent  the  ravages 
of  predatory  animals  of  the  lower  altitudes.  The 
scope  of  country  covered  by  bands  of  range  sheep  is 
as  wide  as  and  no  less  varied  than  under  wholly 
natural  conditions,  and  when  the  drives  are  not  long 
and  the  forage  not  depleted  by  overstocking  or  un- 
favorable seasons,  the  flocks  in  no  way  suffer  from 
the  semidomestic  conditions. 

Sheep-ranching,  variously  modifled,  is  the  system 
of  sheep  husbandry  that  prevailed  in  ancient  his- 
toric Asia,  later  in  Spain,  and  to-day  in  western 
American  states.  Much  of  the  area  used  for  ranch- 
ing is  unsuitable  for  farming  and  can  be  made  to 
yield  a  revenue  only  when  given  to  grazing.  Sheep 
have  proved  to  be  more  profitable  grazers  than 
cattle  in  some  instances,  as  a  part  of  the  lands 
grazed  by  sheep  are  too  scant  of  water  and  too 
rough  to  be  utilized  by  cattle.  The  most  of  the 
world's  wool  supply  is  produced  under  such  con- 
ditions as  referred  to  in  North  and  South  America 
and  in  Australia.  The  low  value  of  these  wool- 
producing  lands  makes  sheep-raising  unprofitable 
on  valuable  fertile  land  so  long  as  sheep  are  regarded 
and  kept  chiefly  as  wool  producers,  because  the  in- 


Position  of  Sheep  in  Profitable  Farming         3 

vestment  is  so  much  smaller  in  the  case  of  the  range. 
Large  areas  in  different  countries  seem  destined  to 
be  always  utilized  for  grazing  chiefly  by  the  types  of 
sheep  bred  primarily  for  wool-production. 

Combining  wool  and  mutton. — It  is  as  meat-pro- 
ducers that  sheep  command  the  study  of  men  who 
seek  fully  to  utilize  farming  lands.  This  does  not 
mean  that  wool  is  to  be  wholly  disregarded  in  rear- 
ing of  meat-producing  sheep.  A  very  useful  degree 
of  efficiency  in  wool-production  is  entirely  compatible 
with  even  the  maximum  efficiency  in  producing  meat. 
Placing  entire  dependence  upon  revenues  from  the 
wool  of  sheep  maintained  on  farming  lands,  can  be 
remunerative  only  so  long  as  wool  is  protected  from 
having  to  sell  in  markets  open  to  the  product  of  the 
strictly  grazing  areas.  Because  of  the  wool  tariff,  the 
sheep  industry  in  America  in  the  past  has  experienced 
many  fluctuations  that  have  served  to  prevent  con- 
tinuous advance  toward  such  a  generally  settled 
policy  as  supports  the  horse-,  cattle-,  or  swine-raising 
industries. 

Lands  for  sheep.  —  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  next 
few  pages  to  argue  the  desirability  of  keeping  sheep 
on  every  farm,  but  rather  to  discuss  their  peculiarities 
and  the  features  in  which  they  differ  from  other 
stock  so  that  their  usefulness  may  be  estimated 
fairly.  No  discussion  as  to  the  advantages  of  stock- 
farming  over  grain-farming  is  in  place.  The  prob- 
lem   of   soil    fertility    allows    practically    all    farm 


4  Sheep-Farming 

owners  a  choice  only  as  to  how  much  or  what  kind 
of  stock  shall  be  kept.  Various  factors  determine 
whether  one  farm  or  one  locality  should  be  devoted 
mainly  to  the  keeping  of  one  special  class  of  live- 
stock or  to  giving  equal  place  to  each  of  two  or  three 
classes. 

Farms  or  localities  of  so  rough  or  hilly  nature  as 
to  have  to  be  used  mainly  for  grazing  can  undoubt- 
edly be  best  used  for  special  sheep-farming.  Such 
country  aflPords  the  sheep  the  closest  approach  to 
its  natural  life  and  offers  less  to  contend  with  than 
is  found  under  less  natural  surroundings.  Many 
steep  hillsides  now  being  cultivated  in  some  states 
would  yield  much  larger  net  returns  if  kept  in  good 
grass  and  grazed  by  well-bred  and  carefully  tended 
sheep.  Small  non-productive  parts  of  farms  can  be 
utilized  during  some  months  for  the  maintenance  of 
flocks  that  at  other  times  may  be  used  to  utilize  the 
waste  and  part  or  all  of  the  crops  produced  on  the 
remaining  acres.  This  does  not  apply  to  land  that 
is  non-productive  because  of  being  wet,  although 
some  breeds  have  been  produced  that  are  specially 
adapted  to  low  lands. 

Sheep  for  intensive  farming.  —  Because  of  being 
peculiarly  useful  in  utilizing  waste  lands,  the  value 
of  sheep  for  answering  the  same  purposes  as  do  cattle 
and  swine  has  not  usually  been  realized.  The  in- 
tensive farming  practiced  on  highly  valued  English 
lands   gives    sheep-raising   almost   as   important   a 


Position  of  Sheep  in  Profitable  Farming        5 

place  as  it  gives  to  the  keeping  of  cattle.  The 
economic  advantage  of  sheep  as  compared  with 
cattle  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  produce  more  liber- 
ally in  proportion  to  what  they  consume.  Though 
smaller  in  size,  they  consume  more  feed  in  pro- 
portion to  their  weight,  and  because  of  this  a  larger 
proportion  of  what  is  eaten  goes  into  increase.  It 
is  a  general  principle  among  animals  that  the  less 
the  size,  the  more  rapid  is  the  rate  and  the  greater  the 
economy  of  maturing.  It  is  only  when  conditions  al- 
low such  liberal  feeding  as  is  necessary  to  rapid  and 
economical  development  that  the  possibilities  of 
sheep  husbandry  are  realized.  Whether  or  not  this 
advantage  is  offset  by  other  conditions  will  depend 
upon  the  cropping  system.  Although  they  are 
ruminants,  sheep  are  not  as  well  fitted  as  cattle  to 
utilize  large  quantities  of  coarse  roughage.  This 
fact  probably  puts  sheep  at  some  disadvantage  in 
comparison  with  cattle  as  the  main  stock  on  farms 
in  the  corn  belt,  although  other  features  still  give 
them  an  important  place  on  such  farms. 

In  restoring  or  maintaining  fertility,  considerable 
use  must  be  made  of  green  crops.  The  grazing  off  of 
such  crops  by  sheep  involves  little  extra  labor  and 
leaves  the  main  part  of  the  fertilizing  elements  where 
needed.  The  form  in  which  the  sheep  manure  is 
dropped  and  the  way  it  is  tramped  into  the  soil 
insure  a  smaller  waste  than  is  possible  under  any 
other  system.     The  compacting  of  the  soil  by  the 


6  Sheep-Farming 

small  hoof  is  also  helpful  to  many  loose  soils.  The 
sheep's  habit  of  lying  upon  the  highest  part  of  the 
field  or  pasture  leaves  the  larger  part  of  the  drop- 
pings at  the  place  they  are  most  needed.  Rape 
grown  in  cornfields  can  be  satisfactorily  utilized 
only  by  sheep.  The  fact  that  sheep  can  be  most 
satisfactorily  used  to  feed  off  green  crops  is  of  im- 
portance in  the  solution  of  the  farm  labor  problem. 
There  is  a  saving  of  the  cost  of  harvesting  the  crop 
and  of  feeding  it  out  again,  and  nothing  is  sacrificed 
in  the  returns  secured  from  the  land  so  utilized.  A 
flock  that  is  kept  in  this  way  and  that  is  large  enough 
to  feed  off  the  forage  that  can  be  raised  on  a  con- 
siderable part  of  a  farm  requires  a  good  deal  of 
attention.  Competent  shepherds  are  not  plentiful, 
but  competent  hands  that  have  the  true  stockman's 
instincts  can  learn  the  shepherd's  art.  Though  con- 
tinuous, the  labor  is  varied  and  much  lighter  and 
more  attractive  than  ordinary  field  labor. 

Peculiar  advantages  in  sheep-farming.  —  There  are 
other  points  to  be  weighed  in  deciding  the  place  to 
be  given  to  sheep  in  any  plan  of  stock-farming.  Not 
only  may  they  be  used  to  utilize  otherwise  waste 
land,  but  they  convert  into  mutton  or  wool  much 
material  that  cannot  be  utilized  by  other  animals. 
Particularly  is  this  true  of  lost  grain  left  in  stubble. 
Volunteer  growth  or  aftermath  too  scanty  to  afford 
pasturage  for  other  stock  is  just  suited  to  the  roving 
habits   of  the  sheep.     Moreover,   their  manner   of 


Position  of  Sheep  in  Profitable  Farming        7 

grazing  makes  them  highly  efficient  in  keeping  weeds 
in  check.  Of  the  numerous  plants  regarded  as 
weeds,  cattle  and  horses  eat  about  fifty  per  cent. 
The  proportion  not  eaten  by  sheep  is  less  than  ten 
per  cent.  A  single  sheep  does  not  destroy  a  whole 
plant  at  one  time,  but  moving  as  they  graze,  each 
sheep  in  passing  nibbles  a  few  leaves,  and  when  the 
flock  has  passed,  the  plant  is  defoliated.  Weedy 
cattle  pastures  into  which  sheep  have  been  turned 
have  been  found  to  carry  the  sheep  and  an  added 
number  of  cattle  after  the  weeds  were  destroyed  and 
the  grass  given  fair  chance  for  growth.  Cut-over 
timber  lands  on  which  the  growth  is  not  too  rank 
may  be  cleaned  up  almost  as  effectually  as  can  be 
done  by  goats,  although  to  do  so  it  is  necessary  to 
confine  sheep  rather  closely  to  such  areas.  In 
their  usefulness  in  keeping  weeds  in  check,  they  do 
a  service  that  must  otherwise  be  performed  by  paid 
labor,  and  they  do  it  effectually  and  at  times  when 
farm  hands  often  cannot  be  put  at  such  work. 

Other  features  of  sheep-raising  are  of  interest  in 
a  business  way.  The  revenue  from  wool  and  that 
from  the  lambs  and  mutton  come  in  in  different 
parts  of  the  year.  While  in  a  general  way  values  of 
mutton  and  lamb  accord  with  the  wool  market,  it 
seldom  happens  that  both  products  have  to  sell  at 
bottom  prices  at  the  same  time,  and  the  wool  clip  is 
easily  stored  with  practically  no  waste  or  deteri- 
oration if  it  is  desirable  to  hold  for  a  higher  price. 


8  Sheep-Farming 

The  returns  come  quickly.  Lambs  may  be  marketed 
eight  months  after  the  ewes  are  bred,  and  when,  as 
is  often  the  case,  the  ewe's  fleece  pays  for  her  keep, 
the  lambs  sold  have  no  charge  against  the  mother  other 
than  the  feed  they  consume  and  the  labor  involved. 
Considering  that  in  a  flock  bred  with  attention  to 
both  wool  and  mutton,  the  increase  may  safely  be 
counted  at  one  hundred  per  cent,  the  possibilities 
of  sheep  husbandry  are  scarcely  less  engrossing  than 
those  which  amateur  poultry  raisers  are  wont  to 
compute. 

These  advantages  and  possibilities  make  the  keep- 
ing of  sheep  very  attractive.  They  cannot  be 
realized  if  the  interest  or  attention  is  half-hearted 
or  irregular.  To  insure  the  rapid  maturing  of  the 
lambs,  a  variety  of  suitable  feeds  and  grazing  crops 
must  be  provided.  Intelligent  and  studied  breeding 
is  necessary  to  maintain  a  profitable  combination 
of  wool-  and  mutton-producing  qualities.  To  realize 
the  attractive  possibilities,  each  animal  must  have 
the  most  favorable  opportunity  to  grow  and  de- 
velop and  must  always  be  healthy.  Keeping  a  flock 
free  from  the  diseases  and  ailments  that  deplete 
the  numbers  and  impair  the  thrift  demands  care 
and  foresight.  Sheep  kept  on  ordinary-sized  farms 
and  brought  to  maturity  at  a  rapid  rate  are  under 
conditions  that  afford  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
freedom  and  scope  of  their  mountain  homes  in  a 
state  of  nature,  and  the  effort  to  maintain  and  utilize 


Position  of  Sheep  in  Profitable  Farming        9 

what  has  been  attained  in  a  great  many  generations 
of  improvement  must  be  intelligent  effort.  Preven- 
tion of  troubles  is  much  more  satisfactory  than  the 
treating  of  them  after  they  appear.  Intelligent  shep- 
herding adds  greatly  to  the  pleasure  and  profit  to  be 
derived  from  farming  either  low-  or  high-priced  lands. 


CHAPTER  II 
SHEEP  FARMS  AND   THEIR  EQUIPMENTS 

The  sheep  is  preeminently  the  animal  for  grazing 
lands.  From  this  fact,  it  is  supposed  by  many  that 
the  sheep  belongs  to  a  frontier  country  and  to  rough 
sections  not  available  for  cultivation.  The  sheep 
always  has  gone  with  the  advance  guard  of  civiliza- 
tion, and,  because  during  the  past  century  there  has 
been  so  much  new  territory  occupied  by  civilized 
man,  the  world's  demand  for  sheep  products  has 
been  very  largely  met  from  the  cheap,  newly  occupied 
lands  of  both  North  and  South  America  and  Aus- 
tralia. During  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  sheep  products,  especially  wool,  were  so 
low  in  the  world's  markets  that  the  sheep  was  hardly 
a  competitor  in  profits  on  tillable  lands,  in  densely 
populated  regions,  with  other  lines  of  farming.  A 
generation  has  grown  up  in  the  belief  that  the  sheep 
has  no  place  on  the  corn  and  hog  or  dairy  farm. 

After  visiting  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada  where  sheep  are  kept,  the  writer  is  con- 
firmed in  the  opinion  that  the  unequal  competition 
eastern  farmers  have  had  to  meet  from  cheap  western 
lands  is  just  about  over.     The  rapid  settlement  of 

10 


Sheep  Farms  and  their  Equipments  11 

the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Plains  regions  has  pushed 
the  price  of  land  to  a  level  with  that  of  the  East,  or 
as  near  it,  certainly,  as  its  productive  value  warrants. 
There  is  no  longer  a  West  in  the  sense  in  which  Horace 
Greeley  used  it  in  his  famous  advice,  "Go  West, 
young  man,  go  West." 

World  conditions  as  regards  the  sheep  industry 
now  promise  as  much  profit  from  the  keeping  of  sheep 
on  the  farms  in  the  corn  belt  as  from  the  keeping  of 
hogs  or  beef  cattle,  if  not  even  dairy  cattle.  Upon 
practically  every  farm  that  is  fenced  with  woven  wire, 
a  small  flock  could  be  kept  with  a  large  per  cent  of 
profit.  Small  flocks  remain  healthy  and  live  largely 
upon  herbage  rejected  by  other  classes  of  stock.  And 
small  flocks  on  the  same  pasture  with  other  stock, 
even  cattle,  are  no  detriment  to  them,  as  many 
farmers  suppose. 

The  reputation  Canada  has  made  as  a  sheep 
country  has  been  due  to  its  small  flocks  — ten  to 
twenty  on  almost  every  farm.  Very  rarely  indeed 
are  as  many  as  forty  breeding  ewes  found  on  one  farm. 

American  farmers'  inclination  to  vacillate  and  go 
to  extremes  has  been  greatly  to  their  disadvantage. 
At  times  they  have  scrambled  over  each  other  to  buy 
sheep,  often  getting  more  than  they  were  prepared 
to  keep  well,  and  again  as  frantically  trying  to  dis- 
pose of  all. 

Another  notion  that  has  militated  against  the 
stability  of  the  sheep  industry  is  that  it  will  not  do 


12  Sheep-Farming 

to  keep  one  strain  of  sheep  on  a  farm  many  years. 
While  it  is  true  that  sheep  should  be  changed  from 
one  pasture  to  another  frequently,  there  is  no  reason 
why  the  same  strain  of  sheep  should  not  be  kept 
upon  a  farm  continuously.  The  writer's  family  has 
kept  sheep  continuously  upon  the  same  farm  for  fifty 
years.  A  small  flock  of  sheep  may  easily  be  kept 
healthy  on  the  same  farm  indefinitely.  Still  another 
reason  why  sheep  are  in  disfavor  with  many  farmers 
is  that  they  still  think  of  sheep  solely  as  wool-pro- 
ducing animals  and  handle  them  in  a  way  that  does 
not  make  the  mutton  product  a  prominent  factor. 

The  sheep,  except  under  range  conditions,  should 
be  thought  of  primarily  as  a  meat-producing  animal 
and  handled  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  mutton  lambs 
the  chief  source  of  income.  When  this  is  done,  sheep 
will  be  found  profitable  on  all  our  general  farming 
lands.  And  upon  all  hilly  lands  where  blue  grass 
or  other  good  pasture  can  be  made  to  grow,  sheep 
should  be  the  dominant  interest.  There  is  no  other 
line  of  farming  under  which  the  land  may  be  allowed 
to  go  to  grass  so  completely  as  with  sheep-farming. 
Any  farm  that  is  well  enough  drained,  either  nat- 
urally or  otherwise,  for  successful  tillage  is  suitable 
for  sheep,  though  limestone  clays  and  gravels  are 
most  favorable.  Sheep  to  thrive  must  have  dry 
footing,  and  they  prefer  the  grass  that  grows  upon 
well-drained  land. 

Shade  is  a  great  comfort  in  mid-summer  but  not 


Sheep  Farms  and  their  Equipments  13 

absolutely  necessary,  and  running  water  is  a  conven- 
ience at  certain  seasons.  Artificial  supplies  are  now 
so  easily  provided  for  the  short  season  in  which  there 
is  not  a  natural  supply  available  that  springs  or  per- 
petual streams  are  not  a  limiting  factor  for  the  would- 
be  flock  master. 

Number  of  sheep  to  farm.  —  Not  in  many  instances 
will  it  be  advisable  to  stock  a  farm  to  its  limit  with 
sheep.  Under  that  condition,  the  parasitic  enemies 
are  almost  certain  to  multiply  to  a  damaging  extent. 
Nor  is  there  any  particular  economy  in  making  a 
specialty  of  sheep.  They  call  for  no  special,  expen- 
sive equipment,  nor  can  the  labor  expense  per  head 
be  greatly  reduced  by  keeping  large  flocks  under 
farm  conditions.  The  smaller  the  flock,  even  down 
to  one,  the  better  sheep  do.  Perhaps  one  mature 
sheep  per  acre  of  farm  should  be  taken  as  about  the 
limit,  in  connection  with  the  horses,  cows,  pigs,  and 
poultry  desired  on  the  average  American  farm.  But 
I  should  not  advise  many  to  keep  sheep  to  this  ex- 
tent. The  small  flocks  will  be  found  to  give  the  larger 
per  capita  return.  Perhaps  a  land  investment  of  fif- 
teen dollars  to  furnish  pasture  for  each  mature  sheep  is 
a  safe  basis  for  estimating  that  part  of  the  equipment. 

Buildings.  —  The  buildings  for  sheep  need  not  be 
expensive.  Warmth  is  not  important,  except  for 
lambs  yeaned  in  the  winter.  The  desirable  features 
in  a  stable  for  sheep  are  that  it  should  shelter  them 
from  rains,   be  dry   underfoot,  admit  the  sunlight 


14  Sheep-Farming 

generously,  and  afford  good  ventilation.  Indeed,  in 
the  latitude  of  the  Ohio  valley  and  farther  south, 
many  flocks  run  in  the  fields  throughout  the  year. 
The  writer  believes,  however,  that  north  of  the  Ohio 
River,  winter  shelter  should  be  provided,  and  that 
when  the  weather  has  become  severe  the  flock  should 
go  into  the  stable  and  remain  there  throughout  the 
winter.  It  is  the  unsheltered  feed-lot  in  latitudes 
of  winter  rains  that  are  a  source  of  aggravation  to 
the  sheep  feeder ;  then  they  are  such  a  channel  of 
loss  of  plant  food  as  not  to  be  tolerated.  When  sheep 
are  turned  out  of  the  barn,  it  is  better  that  they  should 
go  at  once  to  the  field,  preferably  a  good  blue  grass 
sod.  This  applies  to  regions  of  winter  rains.  Far- 
ther north,  where  snows  prevail  throughout  the 
winter,  the  open  feed-lot  is  in  favor.  For  many  years, 
the  writer  has  practiced  putting  his  flocks  in  barns 
at  the  approach  of  winter  and  not  turning  them  out 
again  until  the  grass  has  made  a  good  growth  in  the 
spring.  This  is  with  ewes  that  yean  in  the  fall  or 
early  winter.  Ewes  of  the  smaller  breeds  should 
have  at  least  ten  square  feet  of  floor  space  per  head, 
better  more,  and  the  larger  breeds  fifteen.  With 
abundant  provision  for  ventilation,  this  is  sufficient. 
The  windows  should  be  hinged  at  the  bottom  and  have 
casing  so  made  that  they  may  swing  in  at  the  top. 
The  doors  should  be  made  in  upper  and  lower  sec- 
tions so  that  the  upper  can  be  kept  open  except  when 
it  is  necessary  to  close  it  against  storms.     Mature 


Sheep  Farms  and  their  Equipments  15 

sheep  need  no  protection  against  cold  if  kept  dry  and 
sheltered  from  wind.  There  should  be  at  least  two 
square  feet  of  glass  windows,  through  which  the  sun 
can  shine  at  some  time  upon  the  floor,  for  each  one 
hundred  square  feet  of  floor  space,  and  twice  that 
amount  would  be  better.  It  is  dark,  damp,  and  poorly 
ventilated  stables  that  are  responsible  for  the  some- 
what widely  prevalent  notion  that  sheep  will  not 
thrive  in  confinement. 

At  present  prices  of  material  and  labor,  new  barns 
for  sheltering  sheep  and  their  winter  feed  may  be 
built  for  about  $300  for  each  hundred  sheep  — 
the  larger  the  barn,  the  less  cost  per  cubic  yard  of 
space  inclosed,  up  to  a  certain  limit  in  height 
and  width.  Forty  feet  is  an  economical  width 
and  any  desired  multiple  of  14  in  length.  When 
greater  width  is  desired,  the  economical  way  to  pro- 
vide it  is  to  attach  lean-to  sheds  14  to  16  feet  in 
width.  The  plank,  truss  frame  is  the  most  economi- 
cal in  both  lumber  and  labor.  With  the  advent  of 
silage  as  a  sheep  feed,  less  storage  room  for  hay  is 
needed.  For  fattening  sheep  and  young  stock,  low 
sheds  open  to  the  east  or  southeast  are  very  satis- 
factory, though  they  call  for  storage  room  for  feed 
elsewhere.  Should  silage  prove  satisfactory  as  ex- 
elusive  roughage,  then  the  silo  and  a  low,  open  shed 
would  be  a  satisfactory  combination  of  storage  and 
shelter.  The  writer  has  used  silage  extensively,  but 
has  not  used  it  as  an  exclusive  roughage. 


16  Sheep-Farming 

Racks  and  troughs.  —  When  silage  is  used,  the 
rack  described  in  Figure  1  is  very  satisfactory.  A 
cheaper  and  lighter  rack  for  both  grain  and  hay  is 
shown  in  Figure  2.  It  may  be  used  for  feeding  silage 
also.  It  is  2  feet  in  width,  inside  measurement,  and 
may  be  any  convenient  length.  The  posts  are  30 
or  32  inches  high,  depending  upon  size  of  sheep  to  be 
fed.  The  floor  of  the  trough  should  be  elevated  8  to 
10  inches  above  the  foot  of  the  post.  The  side  boards 
are  6  inches  wide.  When  made  for  feeding  small 
sheep,  the  perpendicular  slats  should  be  12  inches 
from  center  to  center.  They  are  made  of  |-  by  2-inch 
stuff,  thus  leaving  a  10-inch  feeding  space  between. 
For  larger  sheep,  more  room  at  the  rack  must  be  pro- 
vided. This  can  be  done  by  putting  the  upright  slats 
wider  apart.  The  feeding  spaces  are  closed,  while  feed 
is  being  distributed  by  a  panel  of  2-inch  slats,  spaced 
the  same  distance,  that  is  arranged  to  slide  half  the 
width  of  the  feeding  space,  as  shown  in  Figure  3. 

For  feeding  hay  and  dry  grain,  the  rack  shown 
in  Figure  4  is  highly  satisfactory.  With  this  rack 
empty,  grain  may  be  poured  into  both  troughs  at 
the  same  time,  as  the  slats  sloping  toward  either 
trough  are  equal  in  number  and  width.  Two  inches 
is  the  proper  width  to  make  the  slats.  The  figure 
will  make  the  construction  clear. 

The  simplest  provision  for  feeding  hay  and  grain 
is  to  do  so  in  separate  racks.  For  the  hay,  a  simple 
box    rack  shown  in   Figure   6,  and   for  grain,  the 


FlQ.  1.  —  Rack  for  feeding  silage  ;  the  sides  swing  down  to  shut  sheep  out 
and  while  cleaning  out  or  putting  in  feed. 


Fig.  2.  —  Rack  for  feeding  hay  or  silage. 


^ 

fcl "^ 

<^'l 

^ 

i  1 

p2" 
.8^ 

1-^ 

-no"-- 

■ 

^J^ 

\ 

■ 

^Tl 

^  r 

^ 

'■     '■■     y 

/ 

—jA 

r 

^, 

u) 

FiQ.  3.  —  Same  rack  as  shown  in  Figure  2,  closed  for  putting  in  feed. 


yMsmsmmmBmssm 


\mmmm\ww\W\V' 


M 


B 


Fig.  4.  — Rack  for  feeding  hay  and  grain. 


L 

J 

n 

□ 

FiQ.  5.  —  End  view  of  rack  shown       Fig.  9. — A  watering  trough  made 
in  Figure  4.  from  an  ordinary  barrel. 


£ 


■4a>ii}u- 


t 


Fig.  6.  —  Box  rack  for  feeding  hay. 


K 


17 


Fig.  7.  —  Trough  for  grain  feeding  only. 


Fig.  8. — A  reversible  grain  trough. 


Sheep  Farms  and  their  Equipments  17 

V-shaped  trough  shown  in  Figure  7  are  satisfactory. 
The  hay  rack  should  be  30  inches  high  and  30  inches 
wide.  The  feeding  space  should  be  8  inches  wide  and 
at  least  16  inches  from  the  ground.  A  common  error 
is  in  making  the  lower  boards  too  narrow,  also  the  rack 
too  narrow,  so  that  there  is  too  little  room  for  hay 
below  the  feeding  space,  and  the  sheep  are  forced  to 
press  their  heads  into  the  hay,  thus  getting  seed  and 
chaff  in  their  wool,  also  enabling  them  to  waste  much 
feed.  The  grain  trough  is  made  of  one  board  7 
inches  wide  and  If  inches  thick,  and  one  8-inch  board 
I  inch  thick.  Any  of  the  cheaper  hard  woods  are 
suitable  for  this  rack  and  trough.  The  trough  should 
have  legs  that  will  support  the  edges  16  to  18  inches 
above  the  ground,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the 
sheep  to  be  fed.  The  higher  it  is,  the  less  apt  are  the 
sheep  to  get  their  feet  into  it. 

A  better  trough  for  outdoor  feeding  is  a  flat-bot- 
tomed, reversible  one  supported  on  a  truss  as  shown  in 
Figure  8.  The  bottom  board  is  12  inches  wide  and  the 
side  boards  6.  The  side  boards  extend  equal  distances 
both  ways  from  the  bottom  board,  making  a  double 
trough.  A  bolt  through  the  truss  and  into  the  cen- 
ter of  either  end  of  the  trough  supports  it  and  per- 
mits its  being  turned  whenever  it  is  desirable  to  do  so. 
A  peg  through  both  truss  and  trough  near  the  edge 
holds  it  in  position.  A  6-inch  board  supported  in  the 
truss  above  the  trough  keeps  sheep  from  jumping  into 
it.     This  is  a  very  advantageous  feature. 


18  Sheep-Farming 

Watering -troughs.  —  Watering-troughs  should  be 
so  arranged  that  the  sheep  cannot  befoul  the  water, 
and  so  that  hay  or  other  feed  cannot  easily  fall  into 
them.  When  large  numbers  are  to  be  provided  for, 
a  large  storage  tank,  provided  with  float  and  cut-off, 
should  be  arranged  to  hold  a  supply  of  water  at  the 
right  height  for  the  sheep  to  drink.  This  should  be 
connected  by  underground  pipes  with  smaller  troughs 
conveniently  located.  Small  barrels  with  a  hole  in 
the  side  large  enough  for  a  sheep  to  enter  its  head 
are  highly  satisfactory.  Figure  9  shows  one.  They 
should  be  placed  on  end  and  the  upper  head  removed 
and  made  into  a  lid.  This  permits  easy  cleaning 
when  it  becomes  necessary.  When  such  a  water 
system  is  not  considered  available,  tubs  that  may  be 
easily  emptied  and  cleaned  should  be  used.  A  50- 
gallon  barrel  cut  in  two  makes  convenient  tubs. 
They  should  be  partially  covered  with  removable  lids. 
Sheep  are  very  dainty  as  to  odors,  so  that  drinking- 
vessels  must  be  kept  scrupulously  clean. 

A  convenient  source  of  water  supply  is  the  rain- 
water from  the  stable  roof.  When  elevated  land  near 
the  barn  permits  of  a  cistern  above  the  level  of  the 
sheep  stable  floor,  it  should  be  availed  of.  Up-ground 
cisterns  are  now  made  of  concrete.  The  writer  has 
had  a  galvanized  tank  on  upper  floor  of  barn  that  is 
still  in  use  after  sixteen  years.  Well  water  is  equally 
suitable  for  sheep. 

Fencing.  —  Woven  wire  is  altogether  the  most  con- 


Sheep  Farms  and  their  Equipments  19 

venient  and  economical  for  either  permanent  or  tem- 
porary fences.  Twenty-eight  to  30  inches  is  high 
enough  for  sheep.  For  temporary  fences,  use  the 
lighter  and  softer  wire  because  easier  to  move.  The 
writer,  after  years  of  experience,  thinks  that  both  line 
and  stay  wires  in  permanent  fences  should  be  No.  9 
or  larger.  The  posts  may  well  be  3  rods  apart  on  level 
ground. 


CHAPTER  III 
BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 

The  breeds  of  sheep  are  commonly  divided  into 
three  classes  on  the  basis  of  the  character  of  the  wool. 
These  classes  are  the  fine,  medium,  and  long  wool. 
The  Merino  breed  includes  all  the  fine  wools,  and  the 
medium  and  long  wools  are  sometimes  referred  to 
collectively  as  coarse  wools,  which  they  are  by  com- 
parison with  the  Merino  types.  The  Merino  has 
been  bred  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  many 
breeders  have  given  special  features  to  their  flocks 
that  might  entitle  them  to  a  special  name,  but 
they  have  all  continued  to  be  called  Merinos,  though 
at  times  with  words  prefixed  to  designate  their  pe- 
culiar characteristics.  Improved  sheep,  other  than 
fine  wools,  include  at  least  twenty -five  distinct  breeds. 
These  represent  separate  successful  endeavors  to 
produce  an  animal  of  special  size,  form,  or  such  pe- 
culiarities in  manner  of  growth  and  feeding  as  adapt 
them  to  the  special  needs  of  the  localities  in  which 
they  have  been  developed.  The  need  of  these  special 
adaptabilities  is  much  more  pronounced  when  meat 
production  is  considered  than  when  the  aim  is  chiefly 
to  produce  a  high  quality  of  wool.     The  production 

20 


Breeds  of  Sheep  21 

of  wool  has  been  carried  on  mainly  in  parts  of  coun- 
tries where  the  conditions  of  raising  sheep  and  the 
marketing  facilities  were  such  as  to  center  attention 
chiefly  upon  the  fleece.  Consequently,  the  fine-wool 
sheep,  though  raised  in  widely  separated  countries, 
are  represented  by  fewer  varieties  or  breeds  than  the 
coarser  wools  or  sheep  in  which  mutton  is  a  more 
important  consideration. 

Habits  of  sheep.  —  The  habits  of  the  domesticated 
sheep  are  as  a  rule  traceable  to  similar  traits  in  the 
wild  sheep.  Perhaps  the  strongest  instinct  in  both 
is  to  seek  the  highest  altitudes.  From  the  time  that 
the  lamb  first  supports  itself  on  its  awkward  and  un- 
steady legs,  its  constant  desire  seems  to  be  to  attain 
the  higher  eminences.  When  allowed  egress  from 
their  pens,  the  lambs  are  likely  to  congregate  on  the 
highest  knoll  in  the  field,  and  contest  supremacy  for 
the  highest  point.  If  a  barrel  is  set  in  their  pens 
and  boards  arranged  so  as  to  run  from  it  to  the 
ground,  it  affords  the  lambs  evident  enjoyment  to 
run  up  the  board  to  the  top  of  the  barrel.  The 
aged  sheep  retain  this  trait  of  their  lambhood. 
In  the  evening  when  the  flock  is  seeking  a  spot  to 
fold  for  the  night,  they  are  certain  to  choose  the  high- 
est and  driest  portion  of  their  pasture  field. 

Another  instinct  invariably  asserting  itself  is  that 
of  following  the  leader.  This,  at  times,  is  a  source  of 
annoyance  and  anxiety  to  the  shepherd,  for  no  matter 
where  one  sheep  may  go,  the  others  are  sure  to  at 


22  Sheep-Farming 

least  attempt  to  go,  also.  This  instinct  the  shepherd 
very  often  uses  to  advantage  in  driving  sheep,  for 
if  one  is  induced  to  go,  the  others  will  gladly  follow. 
It  does  not  seem  that  any  individual  is  chosen  leader, 
though  one  may  be  observed  to  lead  frequently,  but 
as  a  rule  they  all  seem  to  rush  to  follow  as  soon  as 
one  volunteers  to  lead.  Curiosity  is  a  striking 
feature  of  their  nature.  A  bit  of  white  paper  blown 
past  them  by  the  wind  will  cause  them  to  start 
towards  it.  Anything  moving  that  they  do  not  un- 
derstand holds  them  entranced.  A  trait  common  to 
sheep  is  to  stamp  the  foot  when  alarmed  or  excited. 
It  seems  to  be  a  signal  that  readily  alarms  the  rest 
of  the  sheep,  and  it  is  also  one  that  the  ewe  em- 
ploys freely  if  a  stranger  approaches  when  she  has 
the  care  of  her  lambs. 

The  domesticated  sheep  has  never  been  known  to 
return  to  a  wild  state,  no  matter  how  much  neglected. 
They  will  always  return  to  the  fold  where  they  reared 
their  lambs,  if  not  put  in  other  quarters.  Though 
they  become  timid  of  strangers,  yet  they  give  every 
confidence  to  their  caretaker  if  he  proves  himself 
worthy  of  it.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  a  flock  of  sheep 
in  ascending  a  hill  will  not  ascend  it  straight,  but 
always  follow  a  diagonal  course.  Another  pecul- 
iarity is  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  induce  them 
to  take  a  step  backwards.  They  will  never  back 
unless  frightened,  or  a  greater  force  than  theirs 
compels  them  to  do  so. 


Breeds  of  Sheep  23 

In  respect  to  their  habits  in  eating,  there  is  nothing 
noteworthy,  further  than  that  they  eat  the  turf 
closer  than  other  domestic  animals.  They  are 
enabled  to  do  this  through  the  agency  of  a  split  lip. 
The  upper  lip  being  somewhat  divided  and  the  in- 
cisor teeth  being  very  sharp  and  chisel-like,  they  can 
graze  very  close.  Another  feature  that  is  oftentimes 
used  to  their  disadvantage  is  the  extent  to  which 
they  can  exist  without  water.  This  seems  to  be 
accountable  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  salivary 
glands  are  unusually  large  in  sheep.  Bearing  on 
their  conduct  toward  water,  it  is.  often  interesting 
to  observe  their  marked  preference  for  running 
water.  When  watering  them  at  the  pump,  they  will 
crowd  for  positions  at  the  smaller  trough  with  its 
running  stream  in  preference  to  the  large  with  its 
greater  abundance  of  water. 

Ancestry  of  present-day  sheep.  —  The  story  of  the 
origin  and  development  of  the  existing  breeds  is  of 
great  interest  in  itself  aside  from  its  value  as  a  study 
of  methods  of  improvement  and  of  the  proper  place 
of  each.  All  varieties  of  domestic  sheep  have  been 
classed  together  as  Ovis  aries,  the  species  aries  being 
considered  as  represented  alone  by  the  domestic 
form.  While  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  all  our 
breeds,  fine  and  coarse  wools  alike,  are  of  a  common 
stock,  it  seems  strange  that  no  representation  of  the 
species  should  be  found  in  the  wild  state.  It  is  more 
than  probable  that  the  early  stock  to  which  our 


2^^^  Sheep-Farming 

/QncArn  sheep  trace  was  an  amalgamation  of  a  num- 

^  b^  of  domesticated  wild  types.     At  a  very  early 

A-   ^te,  men  maintained  flocks  and  in  some  measure 

^•directed  their  development  by  controUing  the  mat- 

ings.     The   time   that   has    elapsed   since   the   first 

recorded  accounts  of  sheep  husbandry  is  sufficient 

to  allow  for  the  widest  departures  from  the  original 

types. 

The  successful  management  of  sheep  is  based  very 
largely  upon  the  significance  of  the  fact  that  they 
are  by  nature  the  inhabitants  of  only  mountainous 
areas.  Their  habitat  is  above  that  of  other  animals 
and  allows  them  a  freedom  of  range  with  a  wide 
variety  of  plants  to  feed  upon.  The  high  altitudes 
to  which  they  are  native  insure  dryness  and  freedom 
from  the  numerous  forms  of  parasites  that  abound 
in  damper  soils,  especially  on  those  that  are  heavily 
stocked.  Even  wdth  the  breeds  that  have  been 
developed  for  conditions  that  are  the  opposite  of 
those  of  the  wild  sheep,  there  is  need  of  continued 
care  and  watchfulness  to  offset  the  effects  of  the 
unnatural  environment. 

American  sheep  trace  wholly  to  importations  from 
Europe,  and  that  the  stock  of  that  continent  had  its 
rise  in  Asia,  there  can  be  little  doubt.  The  immense 
mountain  ranges  of  Central  Asia  seem  to  have  been 
the  habitat  of  the  sheep  in  its  natural  state.  Many 
of  the  Asiatic  sheep  are  either  short-tailed  as  is  the 
goat,  fat-rumped,  or  else  have  long  fat  tails  the  weight 


Breeds  of  Sheep  25 

of  which  at  times  is  equal  to  one  third  that  of  the 
body.  This  class  of  sheep  seems  to  have  found  but 
little  place  either  in  Europe  or  America.  Only  a 
few  of  the  native  Asiatic  type  have  the  form  of  tail 
possessed  by  modern  sheep,  and  this  fact  as  well  as 
the  history  of  the  movements  of  the  earlier  peoples 
connects  the  stock  of  modern  times  with  that  of  the 
early  Jews  and  Syrians. 

Most,  though  not  all,  wild  types  of  sheep  have  a 
growth  of  wool  that  is  softer  and  finer  than  the  outer 
and  longer  hairy  covering.  The  development  of 
the  wool  and  elimination  of  the  hair  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  early  peoples  was  such  as  to  give  great 
value  to  the  fleece,  which  was  then  the  main  object 
of  sheep-raising. 

Early  sheep-hreeding  in  Europe.  —  From  the  eastern 
lands  the  Romans  brought  sheep  of  fine-wool-bear- 
ing qualities.  They  advanced  the  art  of  wool-grow- 
ing for  a  time,  but  their  work  was  not  continued,  and 
its  influence  persisted  only  through  such  of  their 
stock  as  was  transferred  to  Spain.  Up  to  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century,  the  Spanish  flocks  also  received 
modifications  through  the  stock  of  the  Carthaginians 
and  the  Moors.  Much  of  the  Merino's  oil-bearing 
quality  seems  to  have  had  its  source  in  the  blood  of 
the  sheep  of  Northern  Africa  introduced  into  Spain 
by  the  Moors  at  the  time  of  their  occupation  of  that 
country  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries.  This 
fact  and  the  favorable  influence  of  the  chmate  and 


26  Sheep-Farming 

vegetation  appear  to  have  aided  the  Spaniards  in 
achieving  their  great  success  in  breeding  for  wool. 

During  the  period  of  the  domination  of  the  Moors, 
European  civiUzation  reached  its  highest  point  in 
Spain.  Agriculture  and  manufacturing  were  espe- 
cially advanced.  The  city  of  Seville  was  the  home 
of  the  greatest  weaving  industry  of  the  time,  and  no 
less  because  of  manufacturing  skill  than  because 
of  the  quality  of  Spanish  wools  that  were  unequaled 
elsewhere.  Although  manufacturing  declined  with 
the  conquest  of  the  Moors,  the  country  continued  to 
furnish  the  finest  quality  of  wool  for  export.  A  part 
of  the  flocks  was  maintained  continuously  on  the 
farms  of  the  central  areas,  where  summer  drouths 
are  less  severe.  A  larger  proportion  was  driven 
to  the  northern  part  of  the  country  for  summer 
pasture,  much  as  western  ranchmen  of  to-day  move 
their  herds  over  long  distances  to  secure  summer 
pasturage  in  the  mountain  regions.  There  was  a 
third  type  of  Spanish  sheep  that  was  not  bred  for 
wool  as  were  the  Merinos,  but  it  has  had  no  influence 
abroad. 

Spain  maintained  her  supremacy  in  wool-pro- 
duction until  the  nineteenth  century.  Not  until 
nearly  1800  were  sheep  taken  from  Spain  to  establish 
the  industry  in  other  countries.  In  1788  and  1796, 
the  French  government  made  large  importations  of 
Spanish  sheep,  and  a  royal  flock  has  since  been  main- 
tained at  Rambouillet  near  Paris.     The  outcome  of 


Breeds  of  Sheep  27 

this  enterprise  was  the  Rambouillet  breed,  which  is 
discussed  in  later  pages. 

In  1765,  the  Elector  of  the  German  state  of  Saxony 
secured  a  number  of  Spanish  rams  and  ewes.  These 
responded  to  the  careful  management  of  their  owners, 
and  so  skillfully  was  the  breeding  continued  that  the 
fame  and  influence  of  the  Saxony  Merinos  in  foreign 
countries  has  been  second  only  to  that  of  the  Spanish 
sheep. 

Sheep-breeding  in  Great  Britain  has  always  been 
based  primarily  upon  the  production  of  mutton,  and 
the  separate  discussions  of  the  origin  and  peculiarities 
of  the  various  British  breeds  make  up  the  next 
chapter. 

Formation  of  breeds,  —  In  the  course  of  develop- 
ment of  the  countries  previously  referred  to,  the 
sheep,  being  almost  coeval  with  man,  has  been  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  a  numberless  variety  of  natural 
influences  that  have  given  rise  to  divergent  types 
and  quahties.  It  has  been  a  constant  study  with 
those  realizing  the  need  of  new  adaptations  for  dif- 
ferent localities  to  produce  and  fix  such  variations 
in  types  and  qualities  as  might  be  found  profitable. 
The  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  and  herbage,  all 
controlled  in  a  large  degree  by  altitude,  had  an  in- 
fluential effect  in  earlier  days,  while  during  recent 
years,  perhaps  the  most  potent  powers  working 
changes  in  the  qualities  of  sheep  have  been  the  care 
and  management  of  the  breeder  in  his  methods  of 


28  Sheep-Farming 

feeding  and  breeding.  These  are  clearly  to  be  seen 
in  tracing  the  origin  of  the  breeds. 

Classification  of  breeds.  —  Several  classifications 
of  breeds  have  been  made  and  they  are  all  more  or 
less  elastic.  The  color  of  the  face,  dividing  the  breeds 
into  the  dark-faced  and  the  white-faced,  has  been 
used  as  a  dividing  line;  the  quality  of  the  fleece, 
whether  fine,  medium,  or  coarse,  has  also  served  the 
purpose,  and  the  difference  in  the  length  of  the  wool 
fiber,  whether  long  or  short,  has  been  employed  as 
a  basis  for  separation ;  but  perhaps  the  best  of  all 
classifications,  because  it  is  more  instructive  than 
any  other,  is  that  which  divides  them  according 
to  their  adaptability  to  different  altitudes,  whether 
lowland,  upland,  or  mountain. 

Classification  according  to  face  color.  —  Separating 
the  breeds  on  the  color  of  the  face,  the  dark  or 
black-faced  group  will  be  found  to  include  all  the 
Down  varieties,  the  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Hamp- 
shire, Oxford,  Suffolk,  and  the  Highland  Blackface, 
though  the  face  of  the  latter  is  very  frequently  of 
broken  color.  The  white-faced  group  includes  all 
others,  though  there  is  a  strain  of  the  Cotswold  that 
is  dark  in  the  face,  and  the  Wensleydales  have  faces 
of  various  shades  of  blue. 

The  wool  as  a  basis  for  classification.  —  While 
the  line  of  division  among  the  breeds  based  on  the 
fineness  of  the  wool  fiber  is  not  marked  by  a  measured 
limit,  yet  it  is  none  the  less  clearly  defined.     The 


Breeds  of  Sheep  29 

Merino  with  its  multiple  families  is  the  only  breed 
that  may  be  properly  [called  fine-wooled,  though 
there  are  sometimes  individuals  among  the  medium 
wools  that  would  meet  the  requirements  of  this 
term.  The  medium- wooled  breeds  may  be  said  to 
include  the  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Cheviot,  Dorset, 
Oxford,  Suffolk,  and  Hampshire;  while  the  coarse- 
wooled  breeds  embrace  the  Wensleydale,  Leicester, 
Cotswold,  and  Lincoln.  The  classification  based 
upon  the  length  of  the  fiber  in  the  fleeces  cannot  be 
defined  so  closely  at  this  time  as  in  earlier  days,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  wool  of  the  breeds  that  were 
formerly  classified  as  short,  has  undergone  such  an 
increase  in  length  that  it  cannot  be  called  so  now. 
The  long-wooled  breeds  are  identical  with  the  coarse- 
wooled,  while  all  the  others  in  contradistinction  to 
these  may  be  classified  as  short -wooled,  with  the 
understanding  that  there  is  a  wide  variation  in  this 
class. 

Classification  based  on  being  polled  or  horned.  — 
Another  classification  sometimes  referred  to  divides 
the  breeds  into  polled  and  horned  groups.  The 
polled  or  hornless  heads  are  the  Romney  Marsh, 
Lincoln,  Cotswold,  Leicester,  Oxford,  Shropshire, 
Suffolk,  Hampshire,  Southdown,  and  Cheviot ;  while 
the  horned  breeds  are  the  Dorset,  Highland,  Exmoor, 
and  the  Lonks.  In  the  Merino  and  the  Welsh 
breed,  the  ewes  are  hornless  and  the  rams  horned. 

Classification  based  on  altitude,  —  It  is  a  common 


30  Sheep-Farming 

belief  that  only  a  definite  kind  of  land,  rolling  in 
character,  rocky  in  nature,  and  scanty  in  pasture, 
is  especially  adapted  for  sheep -grazing,  but  a  study 
of  the  different  breeds  and  their  adaptability  for 
difiFerent  altitudes  verifies  the  fact  that  there  are 
breeds  of  sheep  specially  suited  for  most  of  the  varia- 
tions in  natural  environment  that  exist  at  present. 
While  it  cannot  be  asserted  dogmatically  that  the 
breeds  of  sheep  are  only  suited  for  the  conditions 
of  the  altitude  assigned  them,  yet  it  may  be  claimed 
that  they  will  do  best  when  their  circumstances 
approach  those  that  they  have  been  accustomed  to 
in  their  native  districts. 

Influence  of  altitude.  —  The  three  features  re- 
quiring consideration  in  discussing  the  adaptability 
of  sheep  are  those  of  climate,  soil,  and  food.  These 
in  turn  are  decidedly  dependent  on  altitude,  and  this 
again,  in  England  and  most  other  countries,  is  de- 
termined by  the  geological  structure  that  gives  the 
land  its  shape.  The  geological  strata,  whether  hard 
and  capable  of  resisting  the  elements,  or  soft  and 
decomposable,  exerts  an  important  influence  on 
the  altitude  or  the  height  above  the  sea.  High 
altitudes  are  associated  with  broken,  rocky  regions 
with  more  exposure  than  pasturage,  whereas  the 
opposite  brings  to  mind  the  fertile  lowlands  of  alluvial 
soil  and  luxuriant  vegetation.  With  the  altitude  as 
a  basis,  it  is  possible  to  arrange  the  breeds  so  as  to 
illustrate  the  wide  variation  that  exists  in  their  char- 


Breeds  of  Sheep 


Mountains     / 

/  Shetland 

/         Welsh 

/   Blackfaced 

/            Cheviot 

/                               Dorset 

/                                Merino 

/ 

Southdown 

Uplands  / 

Suffolk 
Hampshire 
Shropshire 

Oxford 

Low- 
lands   / 

'' 

Cotswold 

Leicester 

Lincoln 

Romney  Marsh 

31 

4000  feet 


3000  feet 


2000  feet 


1000  feet 


Sea  Level 


32 


Sheep-Farming 


Color  < 

DP  Face 

Fineness  op  Wool 

Dark 

White 

Fine 

Medium 

Coarse 

Southdown 

Cheviot 

Merino 

Southdown 

Wensleydale 

Shropshire 

Dorset 

Shropshire 

Leicester 

Hampshire 

Leicester 

Hampshire 

Lincoln 

Oxford 
Suffolk 

Lincoln 
Cotswold 

Oxford 
Cheviot 

Highland 

Highland 

Merino 

Suffolk 
Dorset 

Length 

OP  Fiber 

Horns 

Short 

Long 

Polled 

Horned 

Merino 

Wensleydale 

Romney  Marsh 

Dorset 

Shropshire 

Leicester 

Lincoln 

Highland 

Hampshire 

Lincoln 

Cotswold 

Exmoor 

Oxford 

Highland 

Leicester 

Lank 

Cheviot 

Oxford 

Merino  1    Ewes 
Welsh    J  hornless 

Dorset 

Shropshire 

Suffolk 

Suffolk 
Hampshire 
Southdown 
Cheviot 

Altitude 


Lowlands 

Uplands 

Mountains 

Cotswold 

Dorset 

Shetland 

Leicester 

Merino 

Welsh 

Lincoln 

Southdown 

Blackfaced 

Romney  Marsh 

Suffolk 
Hampshire 
Shropshire 
Oxford 

Cheviot 

Breeds  of  Sheep  33 

acter,  and  at  the  same  time  supply  a  general  key  to 
these. 

Adaptability  of  the  breeds.  —  The  Romney  Marsh, 
where  the  sheep  of  this  name  are  reared,  is  stated  to 
be  a  plain  of  rich  soil  drained  by  wide  ditches  and 
also  so  near  the  level  of  the  sea  as  to  require  the 
protection  of  walls.  Notwithstanding  this,  there 
are  more  sheep  kept  there  than  on  any  equal  area 
in  Great  Britain.  From  this,  the  first  rise  brings 
us  to  the  Cotswold  Hills  with  an  altitude  of  500  to 
600  feet ;  it  is  asserted  that  it  is  only  upon  hills  not 
exceeding  900  feet  in  height  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  that  the  Cotswold  sheep  will  flourish.  Above 
this  comes  the  Downs,  usually  rolling  in  aspect  and 
with  an  elevation  of  about  1000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Higher  still,  between  England  and 
Scotland,  are  the  Cheviot  Hills  that  rise  in  places 
2700  feet  above  the  sea,  giving  their  name  to  an 
active  hardy  breed  of  sheep  that  prefer  to  range 
such  rugged  lands.  Above  this  is  the  home  of  the 
Blackfaced  mountain  sheep,  a  breed  exceptionally 
rugged  in  constitution  with  the  ability  to  do  well  in 
a  heather  country.  Again  up,  and  we  reach  the  home 
of  the  Welsh  and  Wicklow  mountain  sheep  that  have 
been  observed  feeding  at  an  altitude  of  3200  feet  on 
the  side  of  Ben  Nevis.  The  highest  grazings  that 
sheep  of  any  variety  have  been  known  to  reach  is 
reported  to  be  in  Pem  on  the  plateau  of  the  Andes, 
that  range  in  altitude  from  10,000  to  17,000  feet; 


34  Sheep-Farming 

there  the  temperature  does  not  vary  and  the  fleece 
of  the  sheep  grows  constantly. 

Marshall  gives  an  apt  illustration  to  show  the 
natural  inclination  of  the  sheep  when  they  are  left 
to  themselves  in  making  their  choice.  He  tells  of 
an  instance  when  Lincolns  and  Downs  were  kept 
on  a  farm  that  included  lowlands  and  uplands. 
When  the  sheep  were  turned  out,  the  Downs  would 
go  to  the  dry  uplands,  while  the  Lincolns  would  seek 
the  marshy  bottom  land. 

There  are  probably  some  anomalies  in  the  classi- 
fication submitted,  but  the  only  one  necessary  to 
notice  is  in  respect  to  the  Merino.  The  Merino  is 
beyond  question  the  most  cosmopolitan  of  the  sheep 
tribe.  No  breed  has  passed  into  all  countries  and 
thriven  as  the  Merino,  and  still  further  no  other 
breeds  have  been  able  to  become  so  closely  identified 
with  their  environment  as  to  become  the  progenitors 
of  native  families  as  in  the  instance  of  the  Merino. 
This  would  seem  to  be  due  to  the  migrating  habits 
that  characterize  the  Merino  in  Spain,  where  the 
flocks  are  driven  towards  the  north  in  summer  and 
southwards  in  winter,  thus  becoming  inured  to  all 
the  variations  of  a  diversified  country.  In  the  classi- 
fication given,  the  Merino  is  confined  to  a  prescribed 
area  which  is  hardly  in  conformance  with  the  facts. 
Another  feature  that  is  modifying  the  application 
of  this  classification  according  to  the  altitude  is  the 
degree  to  which  systems  of  management  are  changing 


Breeds  of  Sheep  35 

in  the  native  districts  of  the  breeds.  A  greater 
abundance  of  food,  better  shelter,  and  other  details 
of  management  will  in  time  obliterate  the  character- 
istics of  a  mountain  breed  and  develop  in  them  the 
attributes  of  an  upland  breed  or  change  the  latter 
into  a  breed  adapted  for  the  lower  lands. 

Effect  of  altitude  on  type.  —  Type  being  one  of  the 
most  peculiar  features  of  a  breed,  it  is  interesting 
to  indicate  its  bearing  on  the  sheep  adapted  for 
different  altitudes.  It  may  be  said  that  each  breed 
has  its  peculiar  type  and  within  them  are  the  family 
types  that  are  somewhat  characteristic  of  the  flocks 
of  each  breeder.  It  is  to  the  former,  when  not  due 
to  culture,  that  the  references  herein  are  made. 
In  nature,  it  is  produced  by  function  under  the  un- 
trammeled  action  of  natural  conditions.  Among 
the  mountain  sheep,  there  is  a  tendency  to  approach 
the  shape  of  a  wedge,  with  an  extra  strong  loin  and 
long  hindquarters.  Much  more  defined,  however, 
is  the  circular  form  that  most  of  the  Down  breeds 
approach,  and  this  is  quite  distinct  from  the  squarer- 
formed  and  heavier  bodies  of  the  large  white-faced 
breeds. 

Effect  of  altitude  on  size.  —  Closely  connected  with 
type  is  the  influence  of  altitude  and  its  attributes  on 
size.  The  gamut  runs  from  the  Lincoln,  the  mastodon 
among  sheep,  to  the  smallest  of  mountain  sheep  that 
prefer  to  have  its  "  ribs  less  rich  "  that  it  may  battle 
successfully  with  the  stern  conditions  of  its  native 


36  SJieejp'F arming 

land.  The  Lincoln  and  the  Leicester  would  not 
long  retain  their  mammoth  proportions  without  the 
infusion  of  fresh  blood,  if  forced  to  graze  the  rugged 
sides  of  the  Great  Cheviot,  which  rises  2676  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  it  is  even  less  likely  that  the 
Che\dot  would  retain  its  pertness  and  hghtness  of 
step  if  confined  to  the  level  lowlands.  WTiile  in- 
specting a  flock  of  Leicesters  on  a  high  and  hilly- 
farm,  the  proprietor  advanced  the  information  that 
he  found  it  difficult  to  maintain  the  breed  type  even 
though  fresh  infusions  were  made  constantly ;  and, 
in  conformity  with  the  general  opinion  in  such  mat- 
ters, he  had  decided  that  some  disease  w^as  preva- 
lent among  them.  EQs  farm  was  excellent  sheep 
land  according  to  the  usual  conception. 

A  counter  illustration  is  afforded  from  the  conduct 
of  the  animals  on  the  lowest  sheep  land  of  this  con- 
tinent ;  that  is.  Prince  Edward  Island.  The  handling 
of  the  Leicesters  there,  as  judge,  convinced  the  ^Titer 
that  they  were  the  best  fleshed  and  apparently  the 
thriftiest  sheep  the  writer  had  ever  closely  scrutinized. 
And  they  had  been  reared  on  land  that  current 
opinion  condemns  for  sheep.  However,  they  were 
under  the  conditions  that  suited  the  Leicesters,  and 
consequently  they  were  thrifty  and  maintained  the 
lowland  type.  The  dark-faced  breeds,  the  Downs, 
though  descended  from  some  of  the  best  flocks,  had 
lost  their  type  and  thrift  under  these  circumstances. 
The  Cheviots  the  writer  has  seen  lose  their  wool 


Breeds  of  Sheep  37 

and  general  thriftiness  under  conditions  adapted 
for  the  heavier  breeds,  and  the  characteristics  that 
lead  to  this  are  identical  with  those  that  make  them 
the  champion  grazers  of  rough  and  exposed  pastures. 
Flockmasters  situated  on  highly  cultivated  pastures, 
the  conditions  of  lowlands,  find  that  the  Southdown 
ewes  become  too  fleshy  and  give  birth  to  weak  and 
soft  lambs.  Thomas  Ellman,  the  noted  Southdown 
breeder,  is  on  record  as  saying  that  so  great  is  the 
effect  of  climate  and  soil  that  the  fine  flavor  of  the 
Southdown  mutton  may  be  changed  in  time  to 
coarse,  tallowy  meat;  and  he  further  adds  that  not 
only  the  flesh,  but  the  wool  and  every  other  feature, 
will  become  assimilated  to  those  of  the  different 
localities. 

Climatic  influence  on  wool.  —  It  is  an  inexhaustible 
subject  to  discuss  in  detail  the  influence  of  altitude 
and  its  features  of  climate,  soil,  and  food  on  wool. 
Hair  is  the  greater  part  of  the  covering  of  the  sheep 
in  a  state  of  nature,  and  wool  is  the  result  of  culture 
and  good  treatment;  hence  its  susceptibility  to 
influence.  Climate  is  considered  to  have  an  in- 
fluence on  density,  and  the  colder  the  climate,  the 
denser  the  fleece  grows.  On  the  other  hand,  ex- 
treme exposure,  especially  in  conjunction  with 
poverty  of  soil,  is  credited  with  much  of  the  kemp 
or  dead  hairs  that  appear  in  the  fleeces  of  some  sheep. 
The  fact  that  the  sheep  of  the  eastern  counties 
of  England  have  bare  heads  and  those  of  the  mid- 


38  Sheep-Farming 

land  and  west  are  covered,  has  been  mainly  attrib- 
uted to  the  differences  in  climate.  The  superior 
purity  of  the  Australian  wools,  their  softness,  light- 
ness, and  lustre  are  attributed  to  the  climatic  con- 
ditions of  that  country.  It  is  accounted  that  small 
hairy  sheep  were  sent  from  Bengal  to  Botany  Bay 
to  supply  the  penal  settlement  of  convicts  with 
mutton  and  wool  in  1788.  These,  though  not  by 
any  means  a  thrifty  race,  improved  to  such  a  marked 
degree  as  to  make  it  evident  that  the  soil  and  climate 
of  the  country  was  peculiarly  fitted  for  sheep-farm- 
ing. Spanish  Merinos  were  introduced,  and  it  soon 
became  noticeable  that  the  wool  from  the  Australian 
flocks  was  of  a  finer  quality  than  that  grown  upon 
the  sheep  fed  upon  the  pastures  of  Spain.  Dr. 
Bowman  considers  that  an  even  temperature  and 
a  certain  amount  of  moisture  are  necessary  for  the 
retention  of  lustre,  and  he  cites  New  Zealand  wool 
as  illustrative  of  this  relationship. 

Influence  of  food  on  wool.  —  Altitude,  climate,  soil, 
and  food  are  closely  connected,  and  the  relationship 
is  very  apparent  when  the  fleeces  of  the  different 
breeds  are  considered  in  this  connection.  It  will 
be  found  that  the  large  lowland  breeds  produce 
coarse  grades  of  wool.  The  variations  extend  from 
the  Lincoln,  with  heavy  and  comparatively  coarse 
fleeces,  to  the  light  and  exceptionally  fine-fibered  wool 
of  the  Shetland.  The  latter  has  been  world-famed 
since  1790  for  the  wool  entering  into  the  composition 


Breeds  of  Sheep  39 

of  the  shawls  so  delicate  in  texture  as  to  be  easily 
passed  through  a  finger  ring.  In  figures,  the  variation 
may  be  expressed  by  saying  that  the  finest-fibered 
wool  is  ^rrro  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  while  the  coarse 
fibers  grown  on  the  large  lowland  breeds  may  be 
^  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Abundance  of  feed 
makes  heavy  fleeces  that  secure  their  weight  mostly 
in  grease  or  yolk,  and  to  some  extent  from  the  length 
and  size  of  the  fiber.  The  complaint  is  not  infre- 
quent among  some  breeders  that  they  are  not  able 
to  maintain  the  weight  of  the  fleeces  of  their  flocks. 
A  great  abundance  of  food  will  keep  it  up,  or  if  that 
cannot  be  supplied  economically,  a  smaller  sheep 
would  be  better  for  the  conditions  and  more  wool 
would  likely  be  produced  per  acre. 

E;ffect  of  soil  on  wool  —  This  relationship  of  soil 
to  altitude  is  not  as  close  seemingly  as  exists  between 
the  former  and  the  conditions  of  climate  and  food. 
As  to  the  direct  influence,  it  is  known  that  some 
soils  color  wools  so  that  they  cannot  be  washed  white. 
Territory  wool  has  a  characteristic  bluish  tinge 
that  detracts  greatly  from  its  market  value.  Scott 
asserts  that  the  best  wool-growing  land  is  generally 
that  on  a  sandstone  foundation,  as  it  gives  the  wool 
the  quahty  of  being  bright  and  clean,  while  he  con- 
siders that  volcanic  or  limestone  soils  are  thought  to 
favor  harshness. 

A  study  of  the  soil,  climate,  and  food  supply  of  the 
native  districts  of  the  breeds,  together  with  a  knowl- 


40  Sheep-Farming 

edge  of  the  influence  of  these  and  their  association 
with  altitude,  furnishes  a  guide  to  the  characteristics 
and  merits  of  the  breeds  much  more  reHable  than  that 
from  any  other  source,  excepting  only  actual  ex- 
perience with  the  breed  representatives. 

Establishment  of  American  sheep-breeding.  —  The 
careful  breeding  of  sheep  in  America  dates  from  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  develop- 
ment of  American  industries  that  followed  the  sever- 
ing of  ties  with  England  produced  a  new  demand  for 
wool. 

In  some  instances,  the  legislatures  of  the  original 
states  set  apart  moneys  to  be  given  as  bonuses  to 
growers  of  wool  and  manufacturers  of  woolen  fab- 
rics. Our  political  representatives  abroad  interested 
themselves  in  making  it  possible  for  American  farmers 
to  secure  the  blood  of  the  fine-wool-producing  sheep 
of  Spain  and  thus  establish  the  industry  in  this 
country.  General  David  Humphries  of  Connecti- 
cut, our  minister  at  the  Court  of  Spain,  sent  twenty- 
one  rams  and  seventy  ewes  to  his  home  state  in  1802. 
In  1801,  Mr.  Adams  moved  to  Ohio  and  founded  the 
wool-growing  industry  in  that  state  that  to-day 
leads  the  farm  states  in  wool-production  and  is  looked 
to  the  world  over  for  superior  breeding  stock.  In 
the  same  year,  Robert  Livingston,  Minister  to  France, 
sent  to  New  York  State  a  number  of  Merinos  from 
the  Rambouillet  flock.  In  1809-1810,  Wilham  Jarvis 
of  Vermont,  United  States  Consul  at  Lisbon,  Portu- 


Breeds  of  Sheep  41 

gal,  secured  and  had  shipped  to  this  country  about 
four  thousand  sheep  from  the  best  flocks  of  Spain. 
The  Spanish  sheep  were  kept  in  large  flocks,  and  the 
efforts  of  their  owners  towards  improvement  had 
given  distinction  to  several  types  or  strains.  Sheep- 
breeding  was  deeply  studied  by  many  of  the  owners 
among  the  Spanish  nobility,  and  various  large  flocks 
became  well  known  for  their  special  valuable  features. 
Chief  among  these  were  the  Paulars.  Mr.  Jarvis 
also  sent  Aquiries,  Escunals,  Negrettis,  and  Mon- 
tarcas.  A  part  of  these  remained  on  Mr.  Jarvis' 
Vermont  farm  and  were  afterwards  intermingled 
under  his  direction  and  further  improvement  sought 
by  the  use  of  the  Saxony  Merino  after  the  year 
1826.  Great  interest  had  been  aroused  in  sheep- 
breeding,  and  "it  is  estimated  that  from  April  1, 
1810,  to  August  3,  1811,  there  were  brought  to  the 
United  States  19,651  Merino  sheep."  i 

The  interruption  to  commerce  in  general  caused  by 
the  War  of  1812,  cut  off  foreign  supphes  of  wool,  and 
home  prices  reached  fabulous  figures,  and  so  great  was 
the  popularity  of  the  Merinos  that  $1000  was  com- 
monly paid  for  individual  breeding  sheep.  This  wave 
brought  its  own  reaction.  At  an  early  date,  it  was 
established  as  a  poHcy  of  the  United  States  that  wool- 
growing  and  woolen-manufacturing  should  be  fos- 
tered and  protected  from  the  competition  of  other 
countries   by   the  imposing   of   duties  on  imported 

1  Plumb,  "Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals." 


42  Sheep-Farming 

material.  In  more  recent  times,  the  wisdom  of  this 
national  policy  has  been  questioned,  and  for  short 
periods  free  importations  have  been  allowed.  The 
removal  or  threatened  removal  of  protective  duties 
has  always  had  a  serious  adverse  effect  upon  the  wool- 
producing  industry.  Its  welfare  seems  to  be  closely 
allied  with  governmental  policy ;  its  history  is  one 
of  great  fluctuations,  and  the  end  is  apparently  not 
yet  in  sight. 

Improvement  in  America.  —  While  the  growing 
of  fine  wool  was  established  in  the  United  States  by 
the  importations  of  Spanish  and  Saxony  Merino 
sheep,  the  stock  of  to-day  is  very  properly  designated 
as  the  American  Merino.  Mr.  Jar  vis  wrote  to  the 
author  of  "The  American  Shepherd":  "From 
1811  to  1826,  when  I  began  to  cross  with  the  Saxonies, 
my  average  weight  of  wool  was  3  pounds  14  ounces 
to  4  pounds  2  ounces,  varying  according  to  the  sheep. 
The  weight  of  the  bucks  was  from  5J  pounds  to  6J 
pounds  in  good  stock  case,  all  washed  on  the  sheep's 
backs."  Comparing  these  figures  with  such  as  are 
common  to-day,  there  can  be  no  question  that,  though 
originally  indebted  to  the  Spanish  blood,  the  sheep 
of  to-day  is  essentially  an  American  product.  The 
readiness  of  African  and  Australian  breeders  to  use 
American-bred  Merinos  is  further  proof  of  the 
Americanism  of  the  modern  Merino. 

It  may  be  a  cause  of  perplexity  to  some  to  con- 
sider that  while  we  have  a  score  of  distinct  breeds 


Fig.  10. — An  "A  "  type  Merino  ram  :  Don  Alfonso,  1405,  champion  at 
New  York  State  Fair  in  1909.  Bred  by  D.  K.  Bell,  Rochester,  N.Y. 
(Page  44.) 


Fig.  11.  —  A  prize- winning  ewe  of  "  A  "  type  of  Merino.    Bred  by  D.  K. 
Bell,  Rochester,  N.Y.     (Page  44.) 

Plate  I.    Merino  Sheep. 


Breeds  of  Sheep  43 

of  sheep  in  which  mutton  is  the  first  requisite,  our 
specialized  wool  sheep  are  all  Merinos.  The  mut- 
ton breeds  were  developed  independently  from  vary- 
ing local  stocks  having  peculiarities  of  size  and 
facial  shape  and  coloring  that  give  them  distinctive 
appearances.  The  French  and  the  Germans  have 
developed  their  own  ideals  of  a  fine-wool  sheep,  and 
a  number  of  Americans  have  fixed  distinctive  char- 
acters upon  their  flocks.  Probably  some  of  the 
American  types  have  as  much  individuality  as  the 
Rambouillet,  but  they  all  have  the  same  main  char- 
acteristics, and  to  the  untrained  eye  are  a  homo- 
geneous lot,  while  the  same  is  not  true  of  the  more 
variable  British  breeds. 


The  American  Merino 

The  term  "American  Merino"  embraces  a  larger 
number  of  types  and  strains  than  have  been  developed 
from  the  descendants  of  the  original  stock  from 
Spain.  Mr.  W.  R.  Dickinson  of  Steuben ville,  Ohio, 
had  a  flock  descended  from  the  Humphrey  impor- 
tation. His  success  and  that  of  the  subsequent 
owner  of  the  flock  brought  the  sheep  into  prominence, 
and  a  number  of  breeders,  having  stock  of  this 
strain,  combined  and  for  some  time  maintained  a  flock 
register  solely  for  Dickinson  Merinos.  These  sheep 
were  hornless,  smooth-bodied,  and  produced  wool  of 
extra  length  and  fineness. 


44  Sheep-Farming 

In  the  early  days  of  Merino  breeding,  the  Delaine 
type  was  recognized,  distinguished  by  its  light  folds 
or  no  folds,  fleshier  bodies,  and  some  special  length 
of  staple.  There  came  to  be  recognized  Standard 
Delaines,  National  Delaines,  and  Improved  Delaine 
Merinos.  From  Pennsylvania,  also,  there  emanated 
the  Black  Top  Spanish  Merino,  having  a  separate 
register  for  a  time.  In  some  cases,  the  registers  really 
represented  separate  lines  of  descent  more  than  actual 
distinctness  of  type.  There  were  numerous  trans- 
fers of  sheep  from  one  register  to  another  with  en- 
suing confusion  and  duplication  of  work  and  ex- 
pense. Practical  difficulties  arose  in  classifications 
for  showing.  At  times  some  of  the  types  that  were 
really  quite  different  were  required  to  show  together. 
At  other  times  separate  judging  and  sets  of  prizes 
were  furnished  to  so-called  breeds  that  were  too 
nearly  alike  to  justify  such  segregation  or  registra- 
tion. At  the  time  of  the  Louisiana  Exposition,  a  plan 
was  evolved  for  classifying  the  types  of  American 
Merinos,  and  this  plan  is  one  now  generally  in  use 
at  the  leading  fairs.  Some  of  the  superfluous 
registers  have  been  abandoned  and  others  have 
combined,  until  at  present  the  number  of  societies 
is  limited  to  three. 

Classes  of  American  Merinos.  —  The  plan  referred 
to  for  classifying  American  Merinos  provides  three 
groups  or  classes,  known  as  A,  B,  and  C.  Class  A 
includes  the  sheep  that  represent  the  extreme  in 


Breeds  of  Sheep  45 

production  of  wool.  (Figs.  10, 11,  PI.  I.)  The  entire 
body  is  covered  with  folds  and  wrinkles.  The  yolk  is 
very  abundant.  To  be  properly  classed  as  A  type, 
sheep  must  also  show  the  greatest  density  of  fleece  and 
fineness  of  its  fibers,  though  the  length  is  not  so  great 
as  in  the  classes  having  plainer  bodies  and  less  fineness. 

Class  B  is  to  include  sheep  less  heavily  folded  than 
in  class  A.  The  body  is  more  developed  and  the 
weight  of  fleece  in  proportion  to  body  weight  is  less. 
The  staple  is  of  greater  length.  This  type  of  sheep 
is  a  practical  one  for  commercial  wool-production. 
The  heavy  folds  of  class  A  sheep  and  the  difficulty 
they  cause  at  shearing  time  put  them  at  a  disad- 
vantage from  the  wool  grower's  standpoint.  It  is 
claimed,  however,  that  such  a  type  must  be  main- 
tained to  afford  a  means  of  maintaining  fineness, 
density,  and  oil,  which  qualities  are  difficult  to  main- 
tain in  flocks  bred  pure  to  other  types. 

Class  C  is  the  Delaine  Merino.  (Fig.  14,  PL  III.) 
The  Rambouillet  is  not  included  in  the  A,  B,  and  C 
classification.  Class  C  sheep  retain  marked  fineness 
of  fiber  with  considerably  greater  length  than  is  found 
in  either  class  A  or  class  B.  They  are  nearly  free 
from  folds  and  rank  much  higher  as  mutton  producers 
than  either  A  or  B  types.  Wliile  each  animal  is 
registered  as  either  of  A,  B,  or  C  type,  there  is  no 
hindrance  to  mingling  the  types.  The  class  desig- 
nation is  based  solely  on  individuality  and  does  not 
necessarily  imply  anything  regarding  parentage. 


46  Sheep- Farming 

French  Merinos 

The  Rambouillet.  (Fig.  12,  PL  II.)  —  Fine-wool 
sheep  have  been  bred  in  France  since  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  in  1783  that  sheep 
were  brought  from  Spain  to  a  farm  at  Rambouillet, 
near  Paris,  under  the  patronage  of  Louis  XVI.  The 
French  government  still  maintains  a  flock  at  the 
same  place.  Private  breeders  in  France  have  worked 
along  the  lines  followed  by  those  in  charge  of  the 
government  flock,  and  the  stock  has  become  widely 
known  as  Rambouillet  or  French  Merinos.  Later 
on,  this  type  of  sheep  was  introduced  into  Germany 
and  a  notable  improvement  effected  in  the  flock  of 
Baron  F.  Von  Homeyer  of  Rangin,  Pomerania. 
Many  of  the  Rambouillets  imported  to  America 
since  1882  have  been  brought  from  Germany.  From 
1840  to  1850,  several  lots  were  brought  to  eastern 
states.  The  breed  was  introduced  to  Ohio  in  1851, 
and  in  that  state  and  in  Michigan  has  been  bred  very 
successfully. 

The  French  and  German  breeders  have  aimed  to 
produce  a  type  of  sheep  that  differs  markedly  from 
the  original  Spanish  type,  and  that  is  also  quite  dis- 
tinct from  any  of  the  American  types.  The  mutton 
qualities  are  more  developed  in  Ramouillet  than  in 
any  other  fine-wool  sheep.  They  are  a  growthy 
sheep  with  large,  strong  frames,  heavy  bone,  and 
commonly  having  considerable  length  of  leg.     They 


Breeds  of  Sheep  47 

reach  large  weights,  rams  sometimes  weighing  three 
hundred  pounds.  It  is  the  size  and  growthiness 
and  the  mutton  qualities  of  this  breed  that  have 
given  them  wide  popularity  in  ranching  sections. 
Sheep  ranchmen  usually  prefer  stock  with  the  Meri- 
no's proclivities  to  keep  together  in  bands,  because 
this  reduces  the  danger  of  losing  sheep  by  their 
becoming  separated  from  the  band  in  charge  of  the 
shepherd  and  falling  prey  to  predatory  animals.  As 
would  naturally  be  expected,  the  improvement  of 
the  size  and  body  of  the  Rambouillet  has  not  per- 
mitted the  development  of  fleece  found  where  wool 
has  been  the  sole  object  sought  for,  while  there  are 
some  sheep  in  the  breed  with  staple  of  fair  length 
and  exceedingly  fine,  and  the  number  of  flocks  with 
fleshy  bodies  and  long,  fine  fleece  is  on  the  increase. 

The  Rambouillet  is  a  smooth-bodied  sheep  as  a 
rule,  except  for  a  few  folds  about  the  neck,  and  a 
wrinkle  in  the  skin  on  the  sides  of  the  tail-head  is 
preferred  by  some  breeders.  The  rams  have  large 
and  strong  horns,  a  regular  spiral  curve  being  desired. 
Polled  rams  occasionally  appear,  and  the  ewes  are 
uniformly  hornless. 

Contrasted  with  other  Merinos,  the  Rambouillet 
is  the  largest  and  growthiest  and  has  the  best  mut- 
ton conformation,  and  somewhat  coarser  wool.  In 
contrast  with  the  mutton  breeds,  it  is  easily  their 
superior  in  weight  and  quality  of  fleece,  but  suffers 
decidedly  by  comparison  of  mutton  quahties.     While 


48  Sheep-Farming 

regarded  as  a  combination  sheep,  as  usually  found  it 
is  really  better  developed  as  a  wool-producer  than  as 
a  producer  of  mutton.  There  are  no  breeders  that 
select  more  for  mutton  than  for  wool,  and  many  base 
their  selections  upon  fleece  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  upon  form.  Because  of  this  lack  of  uniformity 
in  the  standards  of  the  breeders,  the  flocks  may  differ 
considerably,  but  the  principle  of  giving  equal  stress 
to  fleece  and  form  is  being  more  generally  accepted. 


CHAPTER    IV 

BRITISH  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 

It  was  the  Northern  European  stock  that  gave  rise 
to  the  mutton  breeds  and  that  was  segregated  into 
so  many  breeds,  particularly  in  England.  The  con- 
nection of  this  stock  with  the  Eastern  types  can- 
not be  traced  nearly  so  clearly  as  is  possible  in  the 
case  of  the  Spanish  sheep.  As  the  forests  of  Northern 
Europe  were  cleared,  there  were  maintained  flocks  of 
sheep  descended  from  the  stock  that  accompanied 
the  migrations  from  the  East.  Such  stock  did  not 
receive  the  impress  of  the  African  blood  that  contrib- 
uted to  the  Merino.  For  a  great  length  of  time, 
there  was  no  serious  effort  toward  improvement, 
and  what  interest  they  received  seems  to  have  been 
mainly  on  account  of  their  flesh-bearing  qualities. 
Though  domesticated,  their  breeding  would  be  mainly 
along  natural  lines,  and  the  result  was  the  develop- 
ment of  a  number  of  so-called  "forest  breeds"  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  by  such  characteristics 
as  the  peculiarities  of  the  various  sections  effected 
through  natural  selection.  Though  restricted  in 
area,  England  embraces  a  wide  variety  of  conditions 
due  to  inequalities  of  altitude  and  temperature  and 
E  49 


50  Sheep-Farming 

to  dissimilarities  of  geological  formations,  soil,  and 
vegetation. 

Occasional  and  chance  importations  from  other 
lands  impressed  incidental  features  upon  some  of  the 
native  types,  and  features  so  received  still  persist 
as  incidental  but  distinctive  traits  of  more  recent 
and  highly  improved  breeds.  Of  this  class  of  char- 
acteristics is  the  black  face  which,  if  its  origin  could 
be  determined,  might  establish  connection  with  the 
native  black-faced  breed  of  Abyssinia,  most  known  in 
Persia. 

While  English  agriculture  was  by  no  means  in  a 
crude  form  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, there  was  yet  to  come  the  wonderful  era  of 
improving  the  usefulness  of  farm  animals  inaugu- 
rated by  Robert  Bake  well.  Before  the  time  of 
Bakewell  (1726-1795),  it  is  likely  that  the  idea  now 
too  common  with  us,  of  limiting  sheep-farming  to 
the  less  valuable  lands,  was  more  or  less  prevalent 
in  Europe.  He  won  for  the  sheep  in  general  and  in 
intensive  farming  by  making  the  production  of  mut- 
ton their  chief  end.  The  sphere  of  the  sheep  spread 
from  the  rough  pasture  range  to  the  lower  and  more 
fertile  fields,  until  at  this  time  they  have  adapted 
themselves  to  all  the  physical  conditions  existing  in 
Great  Britain.  The  breeder,  by  working  in  harmony 
with  the  environment,  has  produced  and  preserved 
small  differences  in  type  and  many  peculiarities 
through  which  each  of  the  resulting  breeds  has  special 


Fig.  12.  —  A  prize- winning  Rambouillet  ewe   from  the   flock  of  King 
Brothers,  Laramie,  Wyo.     (Page  46.) 


r^y^ 


Fig.  13.  —  Cotswold  ewe  shown  by  Cooper  and  Nephews.     (Page  61.) 
Plate  II.     Rambouillet  and  Cotswold  Sheep. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  51 

usefulness  in  some  conditions.  The  success  attend- 
ing the  keeping  of  sheep  on  any  farm  will  depend  in 
large  part  upon  the  adaptability  of  the  stock  used  to 
the  soil  conditions  and  farming  system.  These  are 
usually  fixed,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  origin  and  pe- 
culiarities of  the  breeds  is  necessary  in  the  determin- 
ing which  one  is  best  adapted  to  any  specific  condi- 
tions. 

The  Leicester  Sheep 

The  Leicester  as  a  breed  dates  its  origin  from  the 
time  of  Robert  Bakewell  (1726-1795),  and  from  his 
flock  the  Culley  brothers  selected  the  material  that 
they  made  into  the  Border  Leicester,  which  has  now 
attained  the  status  of  a  breed. 

The  old  Leicester.  —  There  are  no  authentic  records 
of  the  source  from  which  Bakewell  secured  the  foun- 
dation for  the  new  Leicester,  though  the  character 
and  qualities  of  the  sheep  that  he  started  with  are 
known.  A  chronicler  states  that  the  Leicestershire 
and  adjoining  districts  "beareth  a  large  boned  sheep, 
of  the  best  shape  and  deepest  staple,  chiefly  they  be 
pasture  sheep,  yet  is  their  wool  coarser  than  that  of 
Costal"  (Cots wold).  Another  authority  enumerates 
among  the  deficiencies  of  the  old  Leicester  that  they 
were  coarse-wooled,  large-framed,  heavy -boned,  with 
sharp  chine,  mean  rump,  loose  skin,  and  that  they 
were  seldom  ready  for  the  butcher  before  three 
years  old. 


62  Sheep-Farming 

The  work  of  Bahewell.  —  Before  Bakewell's  time, 
the  most  of  the  sheep  in  Great  Britain  were  of  the 
heath  or  forest  class  and  not  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  arable  farming.  Bakewell  began  with  the  large- 
framed,  slow-maturing  sheep,  and  in  the  course  of  his 
life  succeeded  in  making  a  permanent  type,  much 
finer  in  quality  and  truer  in  form,  and  especially 
quicker  in  maturing.  There  are  no  reasons  for 
believing  that  Bakewell  drew  on  any  other  source 
for  improvement  than  selection  in  his  own  flock.  He 
was  a  close  student  of  animal  form,  and  it  was  his 
practice  to  observe  the  relationship  of  outward  form 
and  qualities  to  the  character  of  the  meat  and  the 
development  of  the  carcass.  From  his  studies  he 
evolved  in  his  mind  the  type  he  desired  to  develop 
and  perpetuate.  This  type  has  been  expressed  by 
saying  that  he  desired  to  secure  in  the  body  of  the 
Leicester  the  shape  outlined  by  a  common  soda- 
water  bottle.  Commenting  on  this,  an  authority 
states  that  Bakewell  always  insisted  on  the  necessity 
of  a  barrel  or  egg  shape.  Ridgy  backs  and  big 
bellies  were  his  aversion,  this  authority  states,  ful- 
filling as  they  did  his  favorite  metaphor  of  a  horse's 
collar  put  on  the  wrong  side  upwards.  Against 
large  bone  and  carcass  full  of  offal,  he  waged  vigorous 
war,  and  according  to  the  same  author  the  "hogs- 
head of  truly  firkin  shape  with  short,  light-boned 
legs,  not  exceeding  six  inches  in  length,  was  his  im- 
proved Leicester  sheep  mould,  on  the  plain  principle 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  53 

that  the  value  lies  in  the  barrel  and  not  in  the  legs." 
To  make  this  type,  Bakewell  relied  chiefly  on  selec- 
tion, and  to  maintain  it,  he  pursued  a  course  of  in  and 
in  breeding.  There  is  no  creditable  evidence  to 
the  effect  that  he  resorted  to  crossing  in  forming  the 
type,  and  there  is  authority  for  saying  that  he  was  a 
disciple  of  in  and  in  breeding.  As  soon  as  he  had  the 
breed  established,  a  demand  began  to  grow  for  the 
sheep,  but  instead  of  selling  them  outright  he  adopted 
the  plan  of  letting  rams.  They  were  in  demand  for 
crossing  on  common  stock.  In  1770  he  began  letting 
rams,  but  had  difficulty  in  getting  places  for  them,  as 
may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  they  were  let  out 
for  the  season  at  175.  Qd.  per  head,  but  in  1786 
he  received  300  guineas  for  the  us^  of  one  ram, 
and  in  1789  he  obtained  6200  guineas  from  his  ram- 
letting  operations.  While  Bakewell  was  successful 
in  securing  the  features  he  desired  in  his  sheep,  there 
were  other  qualities  that  suffered  as  a  consequence. 
Weakness  of  constitution  resulted  from  his  operations, 
that  made  these  sheep  unable  to  withstand  exposure 
and  hard  keep,  and  they  also  became  more  or  less 
subject  to  inflammatory  diseases.  They  became  less 
prolific,  and  the  ewes  proved  very  poor  nurses,  owing 
to  the  impairment  of  their  milking  qualities.  Bake- 
well  gave  no  study  to  the  fleeces  of  his  sheep,  hence 
no  improvement  occurred  in  the  wool,  though  in 
nearly  all  other  features  a  much  higher  type  of  sheep 
was  evolved. 


54  Sheep-Farming 

Appearance  of  Leicester.  —  In  the  first  volume  of 
the  American  Leicester  Record,  the  appearance  of  the 
Leicester  is  described  as  that  of  a  fine-looking  animal, 
white  in  face,  eyes  clear  and  prominent,  ears  well  set 
and  free  from  blue.  Sometimes  black  spots  appear 
on  the  ears,  but  are  no  disadvantage.  Continuing 
the  description,  he  says  :  "The  neck  is  well  set  into 
the  shoulder,  full  and  broad  at  the  base ;  the  shoulder 
deep  and  wide ;  breast  full  and  broad,  and  no  uneven 
or  angular  formation  where  the  shoulder  joins  the 
neck  or  back;  deep  in  fiank;  quarters  long  and 
square.  The  legs  are  bare,  being  covered  with  hair 
rather  than  wool,  and  stand  wide  apart  with  no  loose- 
ness of  skin  on  them,  bone  fine  and  hard,  legs  of 
moderate  length,  straight  on  back  and  broad,  light 
in  belly,  nearly  as  straight  below  as  above  (showing 
light  offal)  noble  bearing,  style,  and  action. "  It  is 
not  intended  to  offer  this  as  a  description  of  all 
Leicesters,  but  it  is  submitted  rather  as  the  ideal 
type  that  the  breeders  are  seeking.  The  Leicester 
is  invariably  a  strong-backed  sheep  carrying  a  thick 
covering  of  flesh  that  is  very  likely  to  be  soft.  The 
body  in  shape,  compactness,  and  smoothness  is 
hardly  surpassed  by  any  breed  of  sheep,  but  in  type 
they  are  inclined  towards  legginess,  an  appearance 
added  to  by  the  lightness  of  wool  on  the  belly. 

Mutton  qualities  of  Leicester.  —  The  most  valuable 
feature  associated  with  the  Leicester  as  a  breed  is 
their  quick  fattening  qualities.     They  fatten  readily 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  55 

and  hence  attain  heavy  weight  at  an  early  age.  The 
highest  rate  of  gain  made  by  the  Leicester  at  Smith- 
field  was  in  1887,  when  the  first  prize  pen  averaged 
.76  pound  daily  from  birth  to  time  of  slaughter  which 
nearly  equal  the  best  records  that  have  been  made. 
These  figures  sustain  the  claims  made  for  the  early 
maturing  qualities  of  the  Leicester.  From  them  it  is 
evident  that  members  of  this  breed  are  capable  of 
standing  high  feeding  and  return  rapid  gains,  but  it 
leaves  the  point  undecided  as  to  whether  or  not  the 
gains  are  profitable.  The  quality  of  the  meat  from 
the  Leicester  is  not  conceded  to  rank  with  the  best,  as 
the  preponderance  of  fat  is  a  characteristic  of  the  car- 
cass. This  adds  to  the  percentage  of  offal  and  in  re- 
turn detracts  from  the  value  of  the  carcass. 

In  the  first  volume  of  the  American  Leicester 
Record,  it  is  said  that  the  Leicester  matures  very 
early  and  is  of  good  size;  the  rams  weighing  300 
pounds  and  the  ewes  200  to  250  pounds,  each  fine- 
boned  and  with  very  little  offal,  making  a  very 
profitable  animal  for  market  as  well  as  for  wool. 

Characteristics  of  the  Leicester  fleece.  —  The  weight 
of  the  fleece  of  the  Leicester  has  been  estimated  to  be 
10  to  15  pounds.  Twelve  pounds  would  express  a 
fair  average.  Referring  to  the  fleece,  a  writer  states 
that  the  wool  is  fine  in  texture,  tolerably  lengthy  and 
often  curly,  varying  in  weight  according  to  the  type 
from  about  6  or  7  pounds  to  9  or  10  pounds.  The 
wool  is  at  least  8  to  10  inches  long  and  very  fine  and 


66  Sheep-Farming 

lustrous.  It  is  likely  the  finest-fibered  wool  of  any  of 
the  long-wooled  breeds.  The  fleece  is  inclined  to 
peel  from  the  belly,  leaving  this  part  bare,  which  not 
only  detracts  from  the  appearance  of  the  sheep,  but 
also  lessens  the  returns  in  wool. 

Value  for  feeding  purposes. — For  grazing  purposes, 
the  Leicester  cannot  be  said  to  equal  most  other 
breeds,  but  for  fattening  when  there  is  little  foraging 
to  do,  they  can  hardly  be  surpassed.  They  are  quick 
and  hearty  feeders ;  being  quiet  in  temperament,  they 
take  on  flesh  rapidly. 

Breeding  qualities.  —  The  strength  of  the  Leicester 
in  fattening  attributes  appears  to  weaken  their 
breeding  qualities.  Being  inclined  to  take  on  flesh 
very  readily  interferes  with  the  qualities  of  the  breed- 
ing flock,  for  reliability  in  breeding,  prolificacy,  and 
good  nursing  qualities  are  not  usually  associated 
with  a  marked  tendency  to  fatten. 

Adaptability.  —  As  a  breed,  the  Leicester  is  adapted 
for  the  conditions  of  the  lowlands  where  the  feed 
is  abundant,  requiring  very  little  foraging  to"  get  it. 
The  Leicester  ram  has  been  a  prime  favorite  for  cross- 
ing on  ewes  of  other  breeding  for  the  purpose  of  rearing 
early  fat  lambs.  In  the  formation  of  other  breeds,  the 
Leicester  and  the  Southdown  have  played  kindred 
parts,  as  there  is  hardly  a  breed  of  long-wooled  sheep 
but  have  had  at  some  time  in  their  history  an  infusion 
of  Leicester  blood,  while  the  same  may  be  said  of  the 
Southdown  and  its  relation  to  the  dark-faced  breeds. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  57 

The  Border  Leicester 

There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  material  used  in  mak- 
ing this  variety  of  the  Leicester,  though  there  is  no 
uncertainty  about  the  source  of  the  breed.  It  is 
asserted  by  some  that  the  Cheviot  cross  was  em- 
ployed, while  others  maintain  with  reason  that  there 
is  no  proof  of  this  and  that  the  variety  is  descended 
from  the  Bakewell  flock.  The  Leicester-Cheviot 
being  so  popular  in  Scotland  since  an  early  day,  it  is 
hard  to  believe  but  that  an  infusion  of  Cheviot  blood 
may  have  found  its  way  into  the  flocks  of  the  Border 
variety,  but  as  there  is  no  direct  evidence  of  this, 
there  is  no  right  for  its  assumption.  An  early  writer 
refers  to  the  importation  made  by  Messrs.  Culley  by 
stating  that  in  Northumberland  the  Leicester  sheep 
are  the  universal  stock  of  the  low  grounds.  Continu- 
ing, this  authority  states  that  they  were  first  intro- 
duced by  Messrs.  Culley  about  the  year  1766  from 
the  founder  of  that  breed,  Mr.  Bakewell  of  Dishley. 
According  to  Professor  Wrightson,  it  was  in  1763 
when  George  Culley  visited  Dishley,  and  at  that  time 
the  Bakewell  sheep  were  in  high  repute.  Culley 
brought  some  Leicester  rams  from  Bakewell  and 
continued  to  do  so  for  several  years.  The  Culleys' 
stock,  according  to  Professor  Wrightson,  is  looked 
upon  as  the  original  strain  from  which  the  Border 
Leicester  were  derived.  The  Culleys  retired  in  1806, 
and  the  flock  became  the  foundation  for  Lord  Pol- 


58  Sheep-Farming 

worth's  flock,  which  was  conceded  to  be  the  leading 
flock  of  the  breed  in  Scotland.  At  an  early  time,  the 
breed  was  confined  to  a  few  of  the  Border  counties  be- 
tween England  and  Scotland  along  the  Cheviot  range, 
but  with  the  extension  of  their  popularity  their  home 
may  be  said  to  include  many  other  counties,  and  they 
have  been  successfully  introduced  in  addition  to 
several  parts  of  the  world.  This  class  of  sheep  has 
been  coming  into  repute  for  some  years  past  with  the 
English  flockmasters,  many  of  whom  attend  the  great 
Kelso  ram  sales  in  Leicester.  The  Border  type  is  so 
marked  that  the  judges  at  once  disqualified  two  Eng- 
lish Leicester s  which  were  entered  in  the  ram  class. 
The  black  spots  that  were  discernible  about  the 
head  and  ears  of  so  many  of  them  tell  of  their  de- 
scent from  the  Leicester.  They  are  small  in  the  scrag, 
but  have  fine  general  substance  and  size.  They  also 
do  well  on  moderate  land  and  bear  storms  well  at  the 
foot  of  the  Cheviots.  It  is  the  specialty  of  the  ewes 
to  be  very  prolific  and  "milk  like  goats."  They  are 
rather  bare  on  the  beUies  and  have  fine  but  rather 
light-weighing  wool. 

Standard  for  Border  Leicester.  —  In  this  connection 
the  description  of  a  ram  of  this  breed  from  a  paper 
read  by  Hon.  H.  J.  Scott,  manager  of  Lord  Polworth's 
flock,  before  the  members  of  the  Glasgow  Agricultural 
Discussion  Society :  "  Head  white,  hard  and  clean- 
cut  ;  eye  clear  and  prominent ;  nose  black ;  ears  well 
set  and  free  from  blue,  but  black  spots  do  no  harm ; 


Fig.  14.  — a  flock  of  "C  "  type  (Delaine)  ewes  on  the  farm  of  Dr.  H.  P 
Miller,  Sunnybury,  Ohio. 


Fig.  15.  —  Group  of  Cotswold  rams,  winners  at  Omaha  show  in  1911. 
Shown  by  F.  W.  Harding,  Waukesha,  Wis.     (Page  61.) 

Plate  III.     Merino  and  Cotswold  Sheep. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  59 

neck  set  well  into  shoulder  with  bold  gay  carriage; 
strong  in  neck  vein ;  not  ewe  necked ;  shoulders  and 
chest  deep  and  wide;  ribs  wide  and  round  like  a 
barrel;  big  through  the  heart;  deep  in  flanks; 
quarter  long  and  square ;  light  in  offal ;  bones  fine 
and  hard,  like  a  deer;  wool  *purly,'  fine-lustre  wool; 
well  clad  all  over  on  belly  and  testicles ;  none  on 
head  or  legs;  general  frame  should  be  large  and 
roomy;  lines  straight  above  and  below,  immensely 
wide ;  standing  up  well  yet  not  leggy,  with  a  free 
bold  style  and  aristocratic  expression.  Fat  tegs  at 
twelve  to  fourteen  months  old,  weighing  23  to  25 
pounds  per  quarter.  Wool  averages  9  pounds  per 
fleece." 

Difference  between  the  two  Leicester  varieties.  —  An 
authority  states  that  "the  difference  between  the 
Border  Leicester  and  the  Leicester  is  to  be  chiefly  seen 
in  the  head,  which  on  the  Border  Leicester  is  white 
and  boldly  carried,  the  nose  slightly  aquiline,  the 
muzzle  full,  the  nostril  wide,  and  the  ears  erect.  The 
head  is  clean  and  free  from  wool.  The  English 
Leicester,  unless  trimmed  and  sheared  for  show  pur- 
poses, usually  carries  a  tuft  of  wool  on  his  head,  and 
is  also  wooled  on  the  shanks.  The  English  has  a 
bluish  white  face,  whereas  the  Border  Leicester  face 
is  clear  white.  In  carcass  the  Border  Leicester  is  the 
fuller  and  larger,  and  the  belly  is  not  quite  so  full  in 
outline,  being  carried  rather  more  lightly."  Another 
writer  verifies  this  difference  in  type  by  saying  "the 


60  Sheep-Farming 

Border  Leicester  has  more  length  and  massive  char- 
acter than  its  prototype  as  augmented  by  Bake  well." 
The  Border  Leicester,  aside  from  type,  chiefly  differs 
from  the  English  Leicester  in  that  they  are  better 
foragers,  which  in  connection  with  great  vigor  of 
constitution  enables  them  to  withstand  with  more 
success  the  exposure  attendant  on  living  in  the  rugged 
country. 

Value  of  Border  Leicester  for  crossing  on  hill  sheep. 
— For  crossing  on  ewes  of  the  Cheviot  or  Blackfaced 
breeds,  the  Leicester  ram  is  the  most  popular  agent  in 
Scotland.  This  method  of  crossing  is  quite  generally 
used,  for  it  has  been  found  that  the  half-bred  sheep 
makes  an  unusually  vigorous  and  hearty  feeder; 
one  that  is  easily  made  fat  for  the  market.  The  quick 
fattening  qualities  of  the  Border  Leicester,  together 
with  the  size  and  weight  of  fleece  it  gives,  is  supple- 
mented with  the  vigor,  fine  milking  qualities,  and  fine 
wool  of  the  Cheviot  ewe. 

Crossing  on  fine-wooled  sheep.  —  In  New  Zealand 
and  Australia,  where  mutton  rams  have  been  exten- 
sively used  to  improve  the  common  Merino  flocks 
to  supply  the  demand  for  dressed  meat  and  also 
meet  the  conditions  of  the  wool  markets,  the  Border 
Leicester  has  been  extensively  used,  and  the  cross 
has  given  fully  better  satisfaction  than  any  other. 
In  presenting  the  views  of  the  breeders  in  New  Zea- 
land on  this  point  in  tabular  form,  Mr.  Robert  Bruce 
credits  the  Border  Leicester  with  a  score  of  88  out  of 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  61 

a  possible  100,  while  next  to  it  comes  the  Leicester 
with  a  score  of  84.  The  leading  merits  credited  to 
the  Border  Leicester  for  this  purpose  are  its  aptitude 
to  fatten,  hardihood  and  soundness,  from  a  mutton 
standpoint,  giving  both  weight  and  quality,  while  in 
fleece  it  is  ranked  noticeably  high  because  of  its 
quality.  In  respect  to  its  suitability  for  crossing 
on  fine-wooled  stock,  the  Border  Leicester  is  con- 
sidered perfect  by  this  authority,  as  it  receives  the 
full  score  allowed  for  that  feature  in  the  table. 

The  Cotswold  (Figs.  13,  15,  Pis.  II,  III) 

There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  existence  of  sheep  in 
Great  Britain  before  the  time  of  the  Roman  Conquest, 
as  Caesar  does  not  make  specific  reference  to  them. 
However,  it  is  generally  thought  that  in  the  passage 
where  he  makes  reference  to  "cattle  loaded  with 
fleeces  "he  had  sheep  in  mind,  and  if  so,  it  is  but  proper 
to  assume  that  they  were  Cotswold  sheep,  for  no 
other  variety  at  that  time  would  be  so  likely  to  con- 
form to  this  description.  Better  evidence  of  the 
antiquity  of  this  breed  is  afforded,  however,  by  the 
fact  that  the  hills  which  the  sheep  inhabit  take  their 
name  from  the  sheep  instead  of  the  customary  ruling 
of  the  sheep  taking  their  breed  name  from  their 
native  district.  Camden,  referring  to  this,  states 
that  "Cotes"  referred  to  the  houses  in  which  the 
sheep  were  folded,  and  "wold"  to  an  open,  rolling 


62  Sheep-Farming 

upland,  and  these  two  terms  were  merged  in  the 
present  bneed  name,  Cots  wold.  The  "cot  ting"  of 
the  sheep  was  a  practice  introduced  from  eastern 
countries,  and  the  occurrence  of  the  word  "sheep 
cote"  in  biblical  literature  gives  a  further  claim  to 
antiquity  for  the  breed.  The  first  specific  allusion 
to  the  breed  by  name  is  stated  to  have  been  dis- 
covered by  Rev.  E.  A.  Fuller,  an  eminent  anti- 
quarian, who  in  the  study  of  the  medieval  history 
of  the  town  of  Cirencester,  the  center  of  the  Cots- 
wold  district,  found  the  record  of  a  contract  of  about 
the  year  1319  in  which  one  of  the  richest  wool  mer- 
chants agreed  to  pay  11|  marks  per  sack  for  'Xotes- 
wolde"  wool  grown  on  an  estate  in  the  center  of  the 
Cotswold  country. 

A  later  reference  to  this  breed,  yet  one  sustaining 
their  claim  to  rare  antiquity,  is  the  recorded  account  of 
the  present  of  twenty  Cotswold  ewes  and  four  rams 
from  Edward  TV  to  the  King  of  Aragon  of  Spain  in 
1464.  St  owe  in  his  chronicles  refers  to  the  Hcense 
granted  King  John  of  Aragon  "for  certain  Cotswold 
sheep  to  be  transported  into  the  country  of  Spaine 
where  they  have  since  mightily  increased  and  multi- 
plied to  the  Spanish  profit.**  Markham,  writing  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Ehzabeth,  refers  to  the  Cotswold  as  a 
big-boned,  long-wooled  sheep,  and,  after  stating  that 
"Coteswold"  derives  its  name  from  the  country  and 
the  sheep  cotes,  makes  the  further  comment :  "Upon 
these  hills  are  fed  large  flocks  of  sheep,  ha\Tng  long 


Fig.  16. — A  winning  Lincoln  ewe  at  Ameri- 
can shows  in  1909.     (Page  67.) 


Fig.  17.  — a  Southdown  ram  shown  in  1911  by  C.  Leet,  Mantua,  Ohio. 

(Page  74.) 

Plate  IV.     Lincoln  and  Southdown  Sheep. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  63 

necks  and  square  bodies,  by  reason,  it  is  supposed, 
of  their  hilly  and  short  pasture,  whose  wool  is  much 
valued  in  foreign  nations." 

Home  of  the  breed.  —  The  Cotswold  hills  include 
an  elevated  area  of  about  279,800  acres,  the  general 
height  of  which,  omitting  the  highest  points,  has  been 
estimated  to  be  from  500  to  600  feet  above  the  sea 
level.  This  range  of  oolite  hills  has  been  described 
as  running  northeast  to  southwest  and  occupying 
the  eastern  division  of  Gloucestershire.  The  soil  of 
the  district,  according  to  the  same  authority,  seems 
peculiar  in  that  it  is  so  free  and  open  as  to  be  natu- 
rally well  drained,  and  though  varying  much  in 
quality  still  retaining  the  same  outward  character, 
being  calcareous  and  marly.  The  Cotswold  country 
seems  to  be  intermediate  between  lowlands  and 
mountains,  and  contrary  to  the  habit  of  most  long- 
wooled  sheep,  as  noted  by  Professor  Wrightson,  it 
has  made  its  home  on  land  approaching  most  nearly 
to  bleak  uplands. 

Improvement  of  the  Cotswold.  —  The  Cotswold  at 
an  early  day  was  noted  chiefly  for  its  large  size, 
rugged  constitution,  and  the  fineness  and  weight  of 
its  fleece.  It  was  wanting  in  early  maturity  and  in 
carcass  from  a  butcher's  standpoint.  There  is  no 
doubt  but  that  the  Leicester  was  used  as  a  cross  upon 
the  original  Cotswold  to  secure  an  improvement  in 
these  features.  Writing  in  1850,  an  authority  states 
that  the  Cotswold  sheep  of  that  day  was  the  improved 


64  Sheep- Farming 

Cots  wold  and  the  new  Leicester.  The  influence  of 
the  Leicester  infusion  was  to  reduce  the  size  of  the 
sheep,  refine  the  bone,  and  add  to  the  mutton  points 
of  the  carcass,  while  it  also  made  coarser  the  fleeces 
and  increased  the  liability  to  diseases  attendant  on 
a  weakened  constitution. 

Appearance  of  the  Cotswold.  —  The  typical  Cots- 
wold  is  a  sheep  of  noble  bearing,  massive  in  structure, 
affluent  in  wool-production,  and  having  withal  a 
commanding  presence.  With  legs  planted  squarely 
so  as  to  truly  show  the  top  and  bottom  lines  of  a  well- 
developed  body  structurally  exact,  and  also  so  that 
the  head  may  be  given  the  natural  pose  and  carriage 
with  the  forelock  drooping  gracefully,  the  appearance 
of  the  representative  of  this  breed  is  undoubtedly 
grand.  The  face  may  be  white  or  gray  or  brown,  but 
short  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  physique.  The 
forehead  should  be  broad,  and  from  this  wide  base 
the  forelock  should  droop  long  and  gracefully  in  fine 
spirals.  The  neck,  while  short,  should  spring  up 
rather  than  straight  away  from  the  shoulder.  The 
latter  should  be  flat  and  well  packed,  and  the  back 
should,  to  maintain  the  reputation  of  the  breed,  be 
even,  broad,  and  sohd.  The  width  should  run  back 
level  over  the  hips  and  to  the  end  of  the  rump. 
Oftentimes  fat  accumulates  in  this  region,  which  de- 
tracts from  the  evenness  that  should  be  characteristic 
of  the  breed.  The  profusion  of  long  wool  over  all 
parts,  finer  in  fiber  than  in  the  instance  of  most  long- 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  65 

wooled  sheep,  adds  to  an  appearance  of  size  which  is 
fully  justified  by  the  weight  of  the  frame. 

Mutton  qualities.  —  The  Cotswold  is  a  large  pro- 
ducer of  mutton,  and,  as  is  to  be  expected  in  such 
cases,  the  quality  of  it  cannot  be  equal  to  that  of  the 
smaller  breeds.     At  Smithfield  Fat  Stock  Show,  they 
have  made  a  good  record  for  rate  of  gain,  but  this 
does  not  of  necessity  make  a  good  carcass.     In  the 
lamb  class  in  1882  the  prize  pen  averaged  .75  pound 
per  head  daily ;   and  in  1888,  averaging  288  days  old 
and  with  an  average  weight  of  184  pounds,  the  daily 
gain  per    head    was    .64  pound.     In    the  class  for 
wethers  over  12  months  and  under  24,  the  first  prize 
pen  and  cup  winners  averaged  660  days  old  and 
weighed  an  average  of  311  pounds,  making  the  daily 
gain  .47  pound  per  head.     In  1889,  a  pen  was  shown 
that   averaged  270   days   old,    average   weight   205 
pounds,  making  the  daily  gain  per  head  .76  pound, 
which  is  unusually  high.     Over  three-quarters  of  a 
pound  per  head  daily  is  an  exceptionally  high  rate 
of  gain  for  lambs,  no  matter  how  they  may  have 
been  pampered. 

Wool-production.  — The  Cotswold  is  a  heavy 
shearer,  the  average  fleece  being  about  12  pounds  in 
unwashed  condition.  The  wool  grades  as  coarse 
combing,  as  it  is  rather  coarse  in  fiber,  but  also  long 
and  strong.  A  fully  matured  ram  representative  of 
this  breed  will  usually  shear  over  20  pounds  of  un- 
washed wool.     The  fleece  is  inclined  to  become  cotted 


66  Sheep-Farming 

and  vary  somewhat  in  its  quality  on  the  different 
parts  of  the  sheep,  as  on  some  individuals  it  grows 
quite  coarse  on  the  thigh. 

Grazing  qualities.  —  An  early  writer  makes  the 
intelligent  comment  on  this  breed  that  they  are 
remarkable  for  the  exceptional  combination  of  mas- 
sive proportions  of  frame  with  a  constitution  adapted 
to  upland  grazing  on  short  pasture.  Though 
this  breed  may  not  be  as  strong  in  constitution  as 
it  was  at  an  early  day,  yet  they  rank  to  the  fore 
among  the  long-wooled  breeds  at  the  present  time 
in  this  respect.  For  a  large  breed  of  sheep  they  have 
exceptional  ability  to  do  for  themselves,  being  active 
and  vigorous,  consequently  as  grazers  they  are  prob- 
ably the  best  of  any  of  the  long  wools. 

Qualities  as  breeders.  —  As  in  the  instance  of  most 
other  large  breeds,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  fat 
to  accumulate  on  the  back  and  around  the  tail,  col- 
lecting in  such  quantities  as  to  make  uncertain 
breeders.  The  Cotswold  are  fine  milkers,  good 
nurses,  and  likely  to  develop  the  disposition  of  good 
mothers.  While  not  as  prolific  as  some  other  breeds, 
yet,  when  managed  with  intelligence,  the  ewes  rarely 
fail  to  make  good  lambs  of  what  they  do  produce, 
as  they  milk  freely  and  are  attentive  to  the  wants  of 
their  young. 

Value  of  Cotswolds  for  grading.  —  Being  long  estab- 
lished as  a  breed,  the  Cotswolds  are  very  permanent 
in  character  and  prepotent  as  well.     They  are  very 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  67 

certain  in  transmitting  their  qualities  to  common 
stock.  If  the  conditions  surrounding  a  common 
flock  are  such  that  the  fleece  may  be  more  open  with- 
out working  injury  to  the  thrift  of  the  sheep,  then  the 
use  of  a  Cotswold  ram  for  breeding  purposes  may 
make  an  improvement  in  the  fleece  by  increasing 
the  weight  of  it.  And  if  size  is  desired,  it  can  be 
secured  through  the  same  source  without  detracting 
from  the  vigor  of  the  flock. 

The  Lincoln  (Figs.  16,  19,  Pis.  IV,  V) 

The  origin  of  the  breed  is  obscure.  As  early  as 
1749,  they  are  referred  to  as  a  sheep  of  the  Fens  of 
Lincolnshire.  An  early  description  of  this  breed 
describes  them  as  ungainly  animals,  with  a  long, 
thin  carcass,  thick  and  rough  legs,  large  bones  and 
thick  pelts,  attaining  a  great  weight  but  very  slow  in 
maturing.  Their  chief  merit  at  that  time  was  their 
wool,  which  was  from  8  to  16  inches  long,  and  their 
fleeces  weighed  from  8  to  14  pounds.  This  feature 
made  them  profitable  to  the  lowland  graziers,  al- 
though covering  a  slow-feeding,  coarse-grained  car- 
cass of  mutton.  The  same  authority  notes  that 
Young,  fifty  years  previous,  observed  the  Leicesters 
were  drawing  the  Lincolns  from  the  poorer  lands  and 
improving  the  latter  breed  by  crossing,  and  this  con- 
tinued to  such  a  degree  that  the  old  Lincolns  were 
scarcely  to  be  found  about  the  middle  of  the  nine- 


68  Sheep-Farming 

teenth  century.  Another  authority,  writing  about 
that  time,  in  describing  this  change,  says  that  the 
long-wooled  Lincolns  were  formerly  the  only  variety 
produced  in  the  county,  and  they  seemed  formed  for 
the  then  rich  marshy  soils  or  cold  situations,  there 
being  little  or  no  heathland  under  cultivation.  Their 
principal  product  was  their  long,  strong  wool  which 
protected  them  against  the  vicissitudes  of  the  eastern 
winds  upon  their  bleak  open  pastures  during  the 
winter  months.  They  had,  according  to  this  au- 
thority, long,  white  heads  and  ears,  long,  thin  car- 
casses with  exceedingly  large  bone,  and  because  of 
their  wool-bearing  capacity,  they  were  scarcely  ever 
fattened  previous  to  their  third  year. 

Improvement  of  the  old  Lincoln.  —  When  the  heaths 
of  Lincolnshire  began  to  be  improved,  the  demand 
was  augmented  for  a  smaller  and  more  compact  and 
earlier  maturing  sheep  to  make  those  waste  places 
fertile.  To  establish  this  type,  it  has  been  recorded 
that  infusions  of  Leicester  blood  were  made  by  a 
number  of  Lincoln  breeders  together  hiring  one  of 
the  most  noted  Leicester  rams  of  the  time  for  one 
thousand  guineas. 

It  was  not  until  1862  that  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England  recognized  the  Lincoln  as  a  breed, 
at  the  Battersea  Show.  They  grew  in  favor,  and  in 
1888  the  American  Flock  Book  was  established,  and 
in  1892  the  demand  for  the  sheep  to  export  to  foreign 
countries  led  to  the  formation  in  Great  Britain  of 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  69 

the  flock  book  for  the  registration  of  pure-bred 
flocks. 

The  type  of  old  Lincoln.  —  About  fifty  years  ago, 
it  was  said  of  this  breed  that  none  varied  more  in 
their  character  and  management  because  of  the 
fact  that  they  were  then  bred  with  a  view  to  suiting 
both  the  marsh  and  the  arable  districts.  There  was 
a  conflict  of  the  two  types  —  the  old  Lincoln  and  the 
new  with  the  infusion  of  Leicester  blood.  Since  then, 
there  has  been  no  need  for  this  outcross,  and  what  we 
know  as  the  present  type  has  prevailed  and  become 
fixed  by  careful  breeding. 

The  Lincoln  may  be  credited  with  being  the  largest 
of  any  of  the  breeds  of  sheep  at  maturity.  They  are 
massive,  strong-boned  sheep,  yielding  large  carcasses 
and  heavy  fleeces. 

The  face  is  white,  strong-featured,  and  the  poll  is 
comparatively  bare  or  surmounted  with  a  small  tuft 
of  wool.  The  neck  does  not  rise  much  above  the 
shoulder,  which  is  broad  across  the  top,  and  as  a  rule 
it  is  exceptional  in  being  very  thickly  covered  with 
flesh.  The  back  is  very  wide,  level,  and  strong.  The 
straightness  and  strength  of  the  back  and  its  cus- 
tomary wealth  of  flesh  are  leading  features  among 
the  individuals  of  this  breed,  though  this  may  be  said 
to  be  a  characteristic  more  or  less  an  attribute  of  all 
the  larger  white-faced  breeds.  The  width  and  level- 
ness  of  the  back  is  continued  over  the  loin  and  to  the 
end  of  the  hind  quarter.     The  latter  fills  out  so  as  to 


70  Sheep-Farming 

make  the  sides  and  the  end  appear  square  on  top, 
but  very  often  the  fullness  does  not  continue  over  the 
thighs  and  twist  as  it  should. 

Live  weights  attained  by  Lincolns.  —  At  the  Smith- 
field  Show  in  1886,  three  ewes  weighed  over  1200 
pounds,  and  in  1826  it  is  recorded  that  a  three-year- 
old  wether  weighed  386  pounds,  a  two-year-old  364, 
and  a  shearling  284  pounds  dead  weight.  At  the 
Smithfield  Show  in  1889  four  pens  of  Lincoln  wethers 
were  shown.  Their  average  age  was  637  days,  aver- 
age weight  300  pounds,  and  the  average  daily  gain 
per  head  .47  pound.  There  were  also  four  pens  of 
lambs  exhibited.  The  average  age  of  these  was 
285  days,  average  live  weight  176.3  pounds,  and  the 
daily  increase  per  head  .59  pound.  These  figures 
are  indicative  of  the  heavy  weights  that  the  Lincoln 
will  attain  to  when  given  an  abundance  of  food  and 
allowed  every  comfort,  that  the  increase  in  weight 
may  be  as  rapid  as  possible.  When  the  growth  is  so 
great,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  quality  of  the 
flesh  should  be  free  from  coarseness. 

Weight  and  character  of  fleece.  —  The  Lincoln  wool 
is  very  long,  being  from  12  to  20  inches,  and  is  ex- 
ceptionally lustrous,  though  coarse  in  fiber.  It  is 
asserted,  the  characteristic  lustre  is  not  retained  when 
the  sheep  are  bred  away  from  their  native  country. 
The  same  authority  states  that  the  massing  of  the  wool 
in  flakes  or  strands  upon  the  animal  is  characteristic  of 
the  breed,  but  that  the  fiber  is  inclined  to  be  hairlike 


Fig.  18.  —  The  first  prize  pen  of  Southdown  wethers  at  the  International 
Live  Stock  Exposition  in  1910.     (Page  74.) 


Fig.  19. — An  English  prize-winning  Lincoln  ram.     (Page  67.) 
Plate  V.    Southdown  and  Lincoln  Sheep. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  71 

and  lashy.  A  report  from  one  of  the  leading  flocks 
in  Lincolnshire  states  that  in  1888  the  clip  of  843 
fleeces  averaged  12f  pounds  per  fleece.  Another 
flock  report  shows  that  125  shearling  rams  produced 
18  pounds  apiece,  60  averaged  over  20  pounds,  and 
four  fleeces  weighed  respectively  23,  24 1,  25  J,  and  30  J 
pounds.  A  good  breeding  flock,  it  is  claimed,  will 
average  12  to  14  pounds  per  fleece. 

Breeding  qualities  of  Lincolns.  —  Reliability  in 
breeding,  prolificacy,  and  good  nursing  qualities 
are  features  that  are  valuable  in  a  breeding  flock. 
For  reliability  in  breeding  the  larger  breeds  cannot 
equal  the  smaller  and  more  active  breeds  for  the 
reason  that  they  are  more  inclined  to  fleshiness,  and 
very  often  the  fat  accumulates  and  overhangs  about 
the  hind  quarters,  so  as  to  prevent  service.  In  re- 
spect to  the  prolificacy  of  this  breed,  the  basis  for  the 
awards  of  the  prizes  of  the  Lincolnshire  Agricultural 
Society  may  be  considered.  Three  classes  of  prizes 
were  offered,  and  in  the  first  class  where  the  number 
of  ewes  bred  exceeded  300,  the  percentage  of  lambs 
to  ewes  was  1.28  in  the  instance  of  the  prize 
winner;  in  the  second  class  where  the  number  of 
ewes  bred  was  between  150  and  300,  the  percentage 
of  the  highest  returns  was  1.34  ;  and  in  the  third  class 
where  the  ewes  bred  exceeded  40,  but  not  under 
150,  the  percentage  of  lambs  was  1.35.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  that  these  are  the  best  results  instead  of 
averages,  and  they  appear  to  indicate  that  in  common 


72  Sheep-Farming 

with  other  experiences,  the  Lincoln  has  superiors  in 
this  direction,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  their 
nursing  quaHties. 

Adaptability.  —  Being  a  large  sheep,  the  Lincoln 
must  necessarily  require  an  abundance  of  feed,  and 
that  within  easy  reach.  It  cannot  produce  a  large 
carcass  with  its  big  frame  and  wealth  of  flesh  and 
heavy  fleece  on  scanty  fare  and  neglect,  for  these 
results  are  only  attained  by  heavy  feeding.  Rich 
and  level  land  that  produces  luxuriant  herbage  and 
heavy  crops  constitute  the  chief  requirements  for  any 
farm  that  would  grow  these  sheep  successfully. 

Value  for  grading.  —  The  Lincoln  as  a  breed  has 
long  been  established,  hence  the  rams  are  prepotent 
in  transmitting  their  qualities.  Under  conditions 
where  it  is  desirable  to  increase  the  size  of  the  sheep  in 
a  flock,  the  Lincoln  ram  is  a  satisfactory  agent  to  use. 
Heavier  weights  of  carcass  and  fleece  may  be  ob- 
tained in  this  way.  Large  numbers  have  been  ex- 
ported from  Great  Britain  to  be  used  on  the  flocks  of 
Merino  descent  in  New  Zealand,  Austraha,  America, 
and  the  Argentine  States.  They  have  been  popular 
for  this  purpose  chiefly  because  of  the  increase  in 
size  and  weight  of  fleece  which  results  from  the  cross. 
The  lightness,  lustre,  softness,  and  length  of  fine 
fiber  which  characterizes  the  cross-bred  wool  makes  it 
in  demand  when  put  on  the  market. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  73 

Differences  in  the  Lowland  Breeds 

Of  the  three  breeds,  Lincoln,  Leicester,  and  Cots- 
wold,  the  Lincoln  is  the  largest  in  size  and  the  coars- 
est in  frame  and  fleece,  while  the  Leicester  is  the 
finest  in  bone  and  smallest  in  size.  The  head  of  the 
Lincoln  is  larger  and  longer  than  that  of  the  others, 
and  like  that  of  the  Leicester  it  has  only  a  small  tuft 
of  wool  surrounding  it,  while  in  the  instance  of  the 
Cotswold  the  long  forelock  falls  over  the  face.  The 
neck  of  the  Lincoln  and  the  Leicester  as  a  rule  is 
shorter  than  that  of  the  Cotswold,  and  as  it  is  straight, 
the  head  is  held  almost  in  a  line  of  the  body.  In 
the  Cotswold,  the  neck  rises  more  erect  from  the  body, 
giving  the  head  a  carriage  and  poise  that  adds  greatly 
to  their  style.  The  body  of  the  Lincoln  is  appar- 
ently fuller  in  its  development,  having  a  greater 
depth  of  flesh  usually  on  the  back,  while  the  Cots- 
wold and  the  Leicester  may  claim  an  advantage  in 
the  length  of  this  part.  The  fibers  of  the  Lincoln 
fleece  are  very  loose  and  strong,  and  they  mass  to- 
gether in  heavy  flakes.  The  wool  of  the  Cotswold, 
while  long,  is  comparatively  fine,  though  it  differs 
very  much  in  crimp.  In  some  fleeces  the  fibers  are 
very  wavy  and  massed,  and  the  crimp  very  uneven, 
while  in  others  they  are  not  the  least  cotted,  but  fall 
away  in  light  locks  with  the  "pirls"  that  are  charac- 
teristic of  the  Leicester.  The  Leicester  fleece  is 
lighter  and  inclined  to  be  more  open  than  the  others, 


74  Sheep-Farming 

and  the  locks  have  a  pecuHar  ciirliness  or  evenness  of 
crimp  from  end  to  end  that  is  quite  distinct  from 
the  open  waviness  of  the  Lincoln  and  Cotswold 
fleeces. 

While  these  breeds  are  especially  adapted  to  low- 
lands, their  extra  weight  and  tendency  to  run  to  fat 
do  not  give  them  the  popularity  in  the  markets  that 
is  accorded  those  breeds  that  come  to  maturity  at 
smaller  weights.  In  some  sections  where  the  rain- 
fall is  excessive,  the  long-wool  type  of  fleece  carries 
the  water  from  the  body  better  than  do  middle  or 
fine-wool  fleeces,  and  thus  affords  a  practical  ad- 
vantage as  well  as  the  one  of  length  of  staple.  Cots- 
wold and  Lincoln  blood  have  been  used  extensively 
in  range  breeding  to  maintain  size  of  frame  and 
length  of  staple. 

The  Southdown  (Pis.  IV,  V,  VI) 

The  native  district  of  the  breed  exists  in  the  Downs 
of  Sussex,  a  range  of  chalk  hills  which  assume  the 
form  of  a  bow  in  the  county  of  that  name.  The 
following  description  will  exactly  locate  the  home 
of  these  sheep.  "If  the  reader  will  glance  at  the 
geological  map  of  England  and  trace  the  boundary 
of  the  great  chalk  formation  in  that  country,  he  will 
see  that  it  is,  roughly  speaking,  the  form  of  a  bow 
or  the  arc  of  a  circle,  the  bow  being  formed  by  the 
eastern  coast  of  Hunstanton  and  traversing  the  west 


Plate  VI. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  75 

of  Norfolk  close  to  Ely  and  by  Hitchen,  Princess, 
Risborough,  Wallingford,  Swindon,  and  Shafterbury 
joins  the  other  extremity  of  the  bow  near  Dorchester. 
This,  broadly  speaking,  is  the  chalk  formation  of 
England,  although  it  is  not  always  visible,  being 
covered  in  places  by  subsequent  formation  of  lowden, 
weolden,  bowlder  clays,  and  sands,  and  throughout 
the  district  from  the  northern  to  the  southern  ex- 
tremity will  be  found  representatives  of  the  South- 
down breed  of  sheep.  These  downs  are  chiefly  of 
a  chalk  formation,  and  vary  in  altitude  from  four 
hundred  to  one  thousand  feet."  Another  writer 
presents  a  contour  of  the  country  as  follows : 
"The  name  of  this  breed  is  taken  from  the  range  of 
chalk  hills  which,  running  in  an  easterly  and  westerly 
direction  through  the  northern  portion  of  the  coun- 
ties of  Kent,  Sussex,  Hampshire,  and  Dorchester- 
shire,  are  known  generally  as  the  Southdowns. 
Their  elevation,"  he  continues,  "  is  nowhere  very 
great,  their  breadth  ranges  from  one  mile  to  six  or 
eight,  and  their  surface  is  firm  and  dry  and  covered 
with  a  close,  short,  and  sweet  herbage.  On  the  south 
they  dip  towards  the  sea;  on  the  north  they  are 
bounded  by  the  lower  chalk  or  the  weolden  forma- 
tion." From  these  writings  it  is  evident  that  the 
home  of  the  Southdown  consists  of  rolling  upland 
chiefly  of  chalk  formation,  thus  insuring  sweetness 
of  soil  and  a  growth  of  nutritious  herbage. 

Origin  of  the  Southdown.  —  It  is  safe  to  assume 


76  Sheep-Farming 

that  the  Southdown  may  clahn  precedence  over  any 
of  the  Down  breeds  in  length  of  lineage,  and  their 
claim  to  being  the  oldest  breed  of  British  sheep  in 
existence  has  as  good  support  as  that  of  any  other. 
Their  history  dates  from  the  time  of  their  improve- 
ment, but  that  they  inhabited  the  hills  from  which 
they  derive  their  name  for  many  years  previous  to 
this  is  clearly  established.  For  time  immemorial  the 
Southdown  as  a  breed  has  had  the  patronage  of  the 
nobility  and  landed  gentry.  Mr.  Thomas  Ellmann, 
the  son  of  John  Ellmann  the  first  improver  of  the 
Southdown,  in  an  address  before  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  England,  spoke  as  follows:  "If 
we  attempt  to  trace  the  origin  of  the  Southdown 
breed  of  sheep,  their  natural  character  at  once  in- 
dicates that  they  are  a  mountain  race  and  well 
adapted  to  the  Southdown  hills ;  and  we  may  fairly 
infer,  in  the  absence  of  any  authenticated  statement, 
that  they  hardly  existed  on  the  island  before  the 
Roman  Conquest,  but  before  the  earliest  time  the 
Southdown  hills  with  their  short,  fragrant  pasturage 
and  dry,  healthy  situation  must  have  been  the  most 
natural  home  for  this  sheep.  The  first  distinct 
record  concerning  these  sheep  relates  that  about 
two  hundred  years  ago  sundry  flocks  feeding  on  these 
downs  were  annihilated  by  a  disease  called  'small- 
pox,' which  was  imported  from  Holland.  From 
this  date  some  attention  was  paid  toward  mixing 
this  breed,  and  pains  were  bestowed  on  its  improve- 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  77 

ment.  Mr.  Arthur  Young,  in  speaking  of  the  South- 
down sheep  in  1788,  admired  their  hardy  constitu- 
tion, their  usefulness  in  manuring  the  land,  and  the 
fine  flavor  of  the  mutton.  In  1794,  when  continu- 
ing those  essays,  which  all  the  world  has  admired, 
he  speaks  of  the  Southdown  sheep  as  natives,  which 
for  many  years  had  existed  on  the  Southdown  slopes. 
At  the  first  show  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society 
of  England,  in  1839,  there  was  a  class  for  South- 
downs,  and  at  each  show  since  then  they  have  con- 
tributed in  a  large  degree  to  the  merit  of  the  sheep 
exhibits." 

Improvement  of  the  breed.  —  The  original  South- 
downs  were  first  described  by  Arthur  Young  in  his 
essays  published  in  1794  as  being  of  hardy  con- 
stitution and  noted  especially  for  the  fine  quality 
of  mutton  they  produced.  Another  writer  states 
that  before  the  era  of  improvement  began,  the  South- 
downs  were  of  small  size  and  far  from  possessing 
good  points ;  being  long  and  thin  in  the  neck ;  nar- 
row in  the  f orequarters ;  high  on  the  shoulders; 
low  behind,  yet  high  on  the  loins ;  sharp  on  the  back ; 
the  ribs  flat,  drooping  behind,  and  the  tail  set  very 
low ;  good  in  the  leg,  though  somewhat  coarse  in  the 
bone. 

Work  of  John  Ellmann  on  the  Southdowns.  — 
These  were  the  sheep  that  John  Ellmann  of  Glynde 
began  to  improve  about  the  year  1780.  He  gave 
fifty  years  of  skilKul  attention  to  their  breeding,  and 


78  Sheep-Farming 

during  that  time  made  remarkable  progress  by  care- 
ful selection  and  judicious  management  without 
any  assistance  from  an  outcross.  As  indicative  of 
the  remarkable  improvement  which  Ellmann  made, 
we  are  told  that  in  1786  he  was  only  able  to  get 
$4.38  a  head  for  80  ewes,  but  in  1800  he  sold 
200  ewes  for  $12.50  per  head.  In  1787  he  sold  a 
ram  for  $50,  but  in  1800  he  obtained  $1500  for  the 
use  of  a  ram  for  two  seasons.  The  reputation  of  his 
flock  became  worldwide,  and  in  1798  the  Emperor 
of  Russia  bought,  at  the  cost  of  300  guineas,  two 
rams  from  Mr.  Ellmann  to  improve  the  flavor  and 
quality  of  northern  mutton.  In  referring  to  the 
aim  of  John  Ellmann  as  a  breeder,  his  son  makes 
the  following  statement:  "In  several  points  my 
father's  aim  differed  from  that  of  his  distinguished 
contemporary,  Bakewell,  the  founder  of  the  im- 
proved Leicester.  It  was  Bakewell's  idea  to  obtain 
the  maximum  of  mutton  with  the  minimum  of  bone. 
He  disregarded  wool  in  comparison  with  mutton  and 
was  the  advocate  of  rapid  development.  My  father, 
on  the  other  hand,  objected  to  forcing  the  young  stock 
and  was  anxious  to  maintain  strength  of  consti- 
tution, and  then  at  the  outset  he  was  driven  to  a  little 
inbreeding  from  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  good 
animals  from  others,  yet  as  his  improvement  ad- 
vanced he  acted  likewise."  It  is  generally  under- 
stood that  Ellmann's  success  was  due  to  close  selec- 
tion.    An  authority  makes  the  following  statement : 


Fig.  22. — The  champion  American-bred  Shropshire  ewe  at  the  Inter- 
national Live  Stock  Exposition  in  1911.     (Page  86.) 

Plate  VII.     Shropshire  Sheep. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  79 

"I  say  that  in  fifty  years'  experience,  I  never  knew 
a  flockmaster  in  the  county  or  out  of  it  who  had  better 
sheep  than  others,  but  the  improvement  was  to  be 
traced  to  Glynde.  The  mode  adopted  and  still 
continued  that  produced  so  much  perfection  is  in 
the  choice  of  the  ewes  to  the  rams  and  the  constant 
attention  to  the  produce  from  such  selections."  It 
has  been  stated  that  some  infusions  were  made  of 
Leicester  blood,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  exact 
evidence  of  it. 

Improvement  of  Southdowns  by  Jonas  Webb.  —  Mr. 
Ellmann  began  his  work  about  the  year  1780  and 
retired  in  1829,  and  it  was  in  1823  that  Jonas  Webb 
commenced  to  devote  his  attention  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  Southdown.  In  1824  the  following 
description  was  given  of  the  Southdowns,  indicating 
what  they  were  when  Jonas  Webb  began  his  work : 
"Their  legs  and  faces  were  gray;  they  have  fine 
wool,  which  is  from  two  to  three  inches  long  and 
weighs  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  pounds  per 
fleece.  They  were  slightly  deficient  in  depth  and 
breadth  of  chest,  but  the  mutton  is  excellent  and 
highly  flavored ;  they  are  kindly  breeders  and  when 
fat  the  average  weight  may  be  stated  to  be  fifteen  to 
eighteen  pounds  per  quarter."  From  the  report  of  the 
Southdown  Club  Show  of  1827,  the  following  extract 
is  taken  to  indicate  the  character  of  the  Southdown 
at  that  time  :  "In  the  sheep  classes  of  that  year  the 
Leicesters  did  not  come  up  to  their  previous  strength 


80  Sheep-Farming 

of  merit.  The  Southdowns,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
declared  to  be  better  than  at  any  previous  occasion. 
The  majority  of  those  exhibited  proving  how  nearly 
the  Southdowns  bred  in  that  day  'approached  the 
Leicester  in  correct  form/  the  last  two  words  itali- 
cized in  the  original  report;  and  certainly,"  the 
reporter  adds,  "there  are  other  valuable  indications 
of  the  first  order."  Mr.  Webb's  aim  was  to  make 
a  larger  sheep  than  that  bred  by  Mr.  Ellmann  and 
still  retain  all  the  desirable  qualities  of  the  South- 
down. Mr.  Webb  purchased  his  foundation  flock 
from  Mr.  Ellmann  and  finally  became  his  successor. 
The  aim  of  Mr.  Ellmann  was  to  improve  his  sheep 
in  form  without  adding  especially  to  their  size  and 
to  maintain  the  original  hardiness  and  recognized 
characteristics  of  producing  mutton  of  the  highest 
excellence.  Mr.  Webb  thought  an  increase  in  size 
desirable,  and  worked  with  this  in  view,  retaining, 
however,  the  true  type  and  essential  points  of  the 
pure-bred  Southdowns ;  namely,  beauty  of  form, 
strength  of  constitution,  with  excellence  of  wool  and 
mutton,  the  latter  unsurpassed  by  any  other  breed. 
Contrasting  the  aim  of  the  two  breeders  still  further, 
the  following  clear  statement  presents  the  difference 
according  to  Mr.  Henry  Wood,  who  says:  "Here  I 
would  venture  to  remark  that  while  the  owners  of 
the  flocks  of  which  I  have  just  spoken  were  scrupu- 
lously careful  to  maintain  the  purity  of  the  breed, 
each  aimed  at  a  different  type  of  animal.     'Small 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  81 

and  good '  sheep  were  clearly  Mr.  Ellmann's  aim ; 
Mr.  Webb's,  *  large  and  good.'  Believing  that  large 
sheep  were  much  the  best  and  would  be  the  sheep 
of  the  future,  I  need  not  say  how  well  Mr.  Webb 
succeeded  in  producing  animals  of  large  frame  and 
greater  weight  than  the  Southdowns  of  Mr.  Elmann's 
day;  while  at  the  same  time,  retaining  the  true 
type  and  all  the  essential  points  of  a  pure-bred 
Southdown  sheep."  Mr.  Webb's  honors  and  suc- 
cesses have  been  many.  It  is  unnecessary  to  recount 
his  winnings  at  the  Royal  and  other  shows;  it  is 
sufficient  to  say  that  he  has  sold  rams  for  as  much  as 
250  guineas,  the  price  a  yearling  brought  in  1860. 
In  1861  and  1862,  the  flock  was  dispersed,  bringing 
16,646  pounds.  The  '  Southdown  has  made  an 
exceptional  record  for  prize  winning  in  the  leading 
shows  of  both  continents.  The  first  noted  victory 
to  draw  the  attention  of  the  world  was  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  in  1878,  when  the  Southdowns  shown  by 
Lord  Walsingham  carried  off  the  first  prize  of  1500 
francs  offered  for  the  best  pen  of  butcher's  sheep, 
and  also  the  grand  prize  for  the  best  pen  of  sheep  of 
any  foreign  (other  than  French)  breed. 

Appearance  of  Southdowns.  —  In  contrast  with 
the  type  of  most  other  breeds  of  sheep,  the  South- 
down is  very  low,  level,  and  compact  in  construction. 
There  is  an  absence  of  waste  in  bone,  flesh,  or  fleece, 
which  no  other  breed  can  approach.  Quality  which 
is  antagonistic  to  waste  is  the  leading  feature  of  the 


82  Sheep-Farming 

Southdown.  Combined  with  this,  there  is  a  level- 
ness  of  top  hnes  and  a  straightness  of  lower  Hnes  and 
an  association  of  these  with  symmetrical  develop- 
ment that  makes  the  Southdown  the  model  sheep 
from  the  butcher's  point  of  view.  Careful  breeding 
for  centuries  has  given  the  Southdown  an  evenness 
of  quality  in  all  features  and  such  a  dearth  of  de- 
ficiencies that  they  cannot  be  approached  for  true- 
ness  of  type  and  an  even  balance  in  essential  char- 
acteristics. The  true  type  of  the  Southdown  is 
strong  in  its  compactness  and  even  development 
of  carcass.  An  estimate  of  the  live  weight  is  in- 
variably deceiving  because  of  lowness  of  the  body, 
the  sohdity  of  the  structure,  and  absence  of  coarse- 
ness in  any  form. 

Description  of  ideal  Southdown.  —  The  following 
description  of  the  qualities  of  a  good  Southdown 
appears  in  the  English  Southdown  Flock  Book : 
"In  a  good  Southdown  we  look  for  a  head  wide  and 
level  between  the  ears  with  no  sign  of  slug  or  dark 
poll;  eyes  large,  bright,  and  prominent;  ears  of 
medium  size,  covered  with  short  wool ;  face  full, 
not  too  long  from  eyes  to  nose  and  of  one  even  mouse 
color,  not  approaching  black  nor  speckled  with 
white ;  under  jaw,  light ;  neck  wide  at  base,  strong 
and  good ;  shoulders  well  put  in,  and  top  level  with 
back ;  chest  wide  and  deep,  *  thick  through  the  heart ' ; 
fore  flanks  fully  developed ;  ribs  well  sprung  and 
*well  ribbed  up';    back    level  with  wide  and    flat 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  83 

loin,  the  whole  covered  with  firm  flesh ;  flanks,  deep 
and  full;  rump,  wide,  long,  and  well  turned;  tail, 
large  and  set  on  almost  level  with  chine;  thighs, 
full,  well  let  down,  with  deep  wide  twist,  insuring 
a  good  leg  of  mutton;  legs,  a  mouse  color  and 
*  outside  the  body';  the  whole  of  which  should  be 
covered  with  a  fine,  close,  even  fleece  down  to  the 
hocks  and  knees  and  right  up  to  the  cheeks,  with 
full  foretop,  but  there  should  be  no  wool  around  the 
eyes  or  across  the  bridge  of  the  nose.  The  skin 
should  be  a  delicate  and  bright  pink,  the  carriage 
gentlemanly  and  the  walk  that  of  a  thoroughbred." 
In  recent  years.  Southdown  breeders  are  cultivating 
the  tendency  to  the  growth  of  wool  on  the  face. 

Production  of  mutton  in  the  Southdown.  —  The  dis- 
cussion of  early  maturity  usually  discloses  two  com- 
mon views  of  it,  the  one  considering  only  the  rate 
of  gain  and  the  other  the  rapidity  with  which  animals 
become  ready  for  market  from  the  time  of  birth. 
It  is  evident  that  it  is  possible  for  an  animal  to  make 
very  rapid  gains  and  yet  not  be  finished  for  market 
at  any  time.  While  the  Southdown  cannot  surpass 
some  other  breeds  in  rapidity  of  gain,  yet  in  respect 
to  the  dispatch  with  which  they  may  be  fitted  for 
market,  they  are  among  the  leaders.  The  South- 
down is  so  fine  in  quality  and  so  smooth  and  level 
in  form,  that  they  are  ripe  for  market  some  time  be- 
fore the  other  breeds.  At  the  Smithfield  Club  Show 
in  1887,  the  Southdowns  did  not  make  as  good  a 


84  Sheep' Farming 

showing  as  in  later  years.  The  best  pen  of  wether 
lambs  made  .59  pound  daily  per  head,  as  they 
averaged  175  pounds  at  an  average  age  of  295  days. 
In  the  class  for  yearlings,  the  best  gain  was  .36 
pound  per  head  daily,  the  average  age  being  622 
days  and  the  average  weight  225  pounds.  In  1888 
they  redeemed  their  record,  since  the  champion 
plate  for  lambs  was  won  by  a  pen  of  Southdowns 
that  made  the  average  daily  gain  of  .60  pound. 
They  weighed  112  pounds  when  dressed,  averaging 
64.36  net  to  gross  weight.  Their  average  age  was 
291  days  and  their  average  weight  174  pounds.  In 
1890  the  best  gain  made  by  Southdown  lambs  was 
.59  pound  per  head  daily  by  a  pen  averaging  166 
pounds  at  an  average  age  of  291  days.  These 
results  show  that  while  the  Southdown  has  not  made 
as  large  gains  as  some  others,  yet  when  judged  as  fat 
stock,  they  have  succeeded  in  winning  the  champion- 
ship more  frequently  than  any  other. 

Quality  of  mutton.  —  Under  the  conditions  of  its 
native  environment,  the  Southdown  produces  an 
exceptionally  fine  quality  of  mutton,  being  fine  in 
texture,  well  flavored,  and  nicely  mixed  in  propor- 
tion of  fat  and  lean.  When  too  closely  confined 
and  fed  under  conditions  at  variance  with  their 
habitat,  these  qualities  are  apt  to  disappear  and  the 
mutton  becomes  surcharged  with  fat.  On  this  point 
it  will  be  interesting  to  quote  Mr.  T.  Ellmann,  the 
son  of  the  first  improver  of  Southdowns :   "So  great 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  85 

indeed  is  the  effect  of  climate  and  soil,  that  the  fine 
flavor  of  the  Southdown  mutton  may  be  changed 
in  time  to  the  coarse,  tallowy  meat  of  the  Leicester 
or  other  long-wooled  sheep.  Nor  will  the  flesh 
alone  be  interfered  with,  but  the  wool  and  every 
feature  will  become  similar  to  those  of  the  nature 
of  the  different  localities."  This  explains  how  it  is 
that  sometimes  the  Southdown  mutton  does  not 
retain  its  marbled  character.  The  characteristic 
of  the  Southdown  breed  is  to  make  an  unusually  fine 
quality  of  mutton  with  little  offal,  as  the  develop- 
ment of  the  meaty  portions  of  the  carcass  is  abnormal 
and  the  fineness  of  the  structure  exceptional. 

Qualities  of  the  fleece,  —  The  wool  of  the  South- 
down is  fine  in  fiber,  and  the  fleece  is  unusually  dense, 
though  not  heavy.  The  fiber  is  short  and  fine  and 
very  even  in  quality  over  all  parts  of  the  body. 
This  trueness  in  quality  in  all  parts  of  the  fleece  is 
reliable  evidence  of  the  carefulness  with  which  they 
have  been  bred  for  decades.  Hairiness  or  the  presence 
of  dead  hairs  in  a  Southdown  fleece  is  a  rarity. 

Attributes  as  breeders.  —  As  a  breed,  the  South- 
down has  a  permanency  of  character  that  has  re- 
sulted from  the  long  establishment  of  the  breed. 
There  is  a  persistency  of  type  among  the  South- 
downs  that  adds  greatly  to  the  certainty  to  which 
they  will  reproduce  their  characteristics,  and  this  in 
turn  insures  pleasure  and  profit  in  breeding  them. 
In  prolificacy  and  other  material  qualities,  they  do 


86  Sheep-Farming 

not  take  such  a  prominent  position  as  that  which 
is  rightly  theirs  in  the  mutton  market.  Being  pos- 
sessed of  vigorous  constitution,  and  also  having  been 
bred  for  definite  qualities  for  a  long  time,  the  im- 
pressive qualities  of  the  Southdown  when  used  on 
other  strains  are  very  strong. 

Adaptability.  —  Being  active  and  vigorous,  the 
Southdown  is  a  good  grazing  sheep;  one  possessed 
of  the  attributes  of  an  excellent  forager.  They  are 
easy  keepers,  and  this  in  association  with  their  ac- 
tivity and  hardihood  adapts  them  to  rolling  lands, 
where  they  are  required  to  live  an  active  life.  When 
kept  under  environment  characterized  by  abundance 
of  food,  the  breeding  flock  is  likely  to  take  on  flesh 
too  heavily  for  the  thrift  of  the  sheep  and  the  vigor 
of  their  lambs.  The  demand  that  exists  in  our 
market  for  fat  stock  requiring  a  live  carcass  weigh- 
ing 90  to  100  pounds  when  finished  for  market  gives 
the  Southdown  with  its  smooth,  plump  form  at  that 
weight  another  leading  advantage  in  their  adapta- 
bility for  mutton  purposes. 


The  Shropshire  (Pis.  VII,  VIII) 

The  home  of  the  Shropshire,  in  a  general  way,  may 
be  said  to  be  the  Midland  counties  of  England. 
In  a  prize  report  of  the  Agriculture  of  Shropshire, 
an  early  historian,  after  describing  the  Shropshire 
sheep,  writes    of   their   native    district    as    follows : 


Plate  VIII. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  87 

**This  may  be  distinguished  as  the  district  of  Co  we 
Dale  as  it  includes  and  consists  chiefly  of  this  far- 
famed  valley.  It  is  inclosed  on  the  west  by  a  range 
of  limestone  hills,  extending  from  Easthope  in  a 
southwest  direction  to  Westhope;  on  the  east  it  is 
bounded  by  the  Clee  Hills  and  the  rising  land  of 
district  number  one,  and  on  the  south  it  reaches 
to  the  borders  of  that  county.  A  reference  to  the 
map  will  show  it  to  be  a  narrow  but  long  strip  of 
land,  varying  in  width  from  one  and  one  half  to  four 
miles,  and  about  twenty  miles  in  length  and  con- 
taining about  35,000  acres.  It  is  a  tract  of  land 
possessing  much  interest  on  account  of  its  fertility 
and  the  general  appearance  of  prosperity  which  dis- 
tinguishes it.  .  .  .  It  spreads  beneath  this  vener- 
able castle  like  a  carpet  of  verdure  of  the  richest 
character,  and  the  luxuriance  of  vegetation  at  once 
strikes  the  beholder  with  the  feeling  that  he  is  view- 
ing one  of  the  most  fertile  of  our  English  vales.  The 
surface  is  slightly  undulating,  just  sufficient  to  give 
variety  to  the  landscape.  The  soil  is  chiefly  alluvial 
deposit  of  good  quality.  As  we  rise  towards  the  hills 
that  bound  the  Dale,  it  gradually  decreases  in 
depth.  It  forms  a  loamy  soil  occasionally  becoming 
a  stiff  loam,  especially  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
Dale.  We  also  find  drifts  which  are  gravelly  in 
their  nature,  as  between  Onibury  and  Ludlow,  but 
these  are  generally  narrow  portions  of  no  great 
extent."     But  all  the  breeding  districts  of  the  county 


88  Sheep-Farming 

of  Shropshire  are  not  as  prepossessing  as  that  just 
described.  Writing  of  another  portion  of  the  county 
where  the  best  and  choicest  flocks  were  bred  at  that 
early  day,  the  same  authority  says:  "The  south 
portion  of  this  district  is  dotted  over  with  a  number 
of  hills  such  as  Hopton  Hill,  Caer  Caradoc,  and  many 
others  give  great  boldness  of  character  to  the  scenery 
and  render  the  land  exceedingly  irregular  and  uneven ; 
level  ground  can  scarcely  be  seen,  except  along  the 
base  of  the  valleys  which  twine  amongst  the  numerous 
hills.  The  soil  is  generally  light,  often  quite  sandy, 
and  at  other  times  thin  and  near  the  rock ;  most  of 
it  is  poor  and  of  inferior  quality,  but  along  the  valley 
there  is  land  of  good  quahty.  This  portion  of  the 
district  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  Welsh  hills,  and 
on  the  east  by  the  hills  which  prolong  the  Wenlock 
Edge.  From  amongst  these  also  many  valleys  run 
into  the  district  and,  by  their  superior  quahty,  add 
much  to  its  general  fertility.  ...  At  Shrewsbury 
we  find  some  land  of  first-class  quality,  varying  from 
strong,  rich  loams,  to  sandy  loams  of  inferior  value." 
Another  writer  in  a  description  of  the  early  Shrop- 
shires  says :  "In  our  early  records  of  sheep-farming, 
Shropshire  is  described  as  possessing  a  peculiar  and 
distinct  variety  of  sheep,  to  which  the  name  of 
'Morfe  Common'  was  given  from  the  locality  to 
which  the  breed  was  principally  confined.  This 
is  a  tract  of  land  on  the  border  of  the  Severn  near 
Bridgeworth,  which,  originally  of  vast  area,  has  of 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  89 

late  been  considerably  diminished  in  extent  under 
the  influence  of  cultivation  and  the  generally  im- 
proved condition  of  the  country."  It  appears  also 
that  two  heath  varieties  also  contributed  to  the 
foundation  of  the  Shropshire,  and  their  native  dis- 
tricts were  the  Longmynd  range  in  Shropshire  and 
Cannock  Chase  in  Staffordshire. 

Original  sources  of  Shropshire.  —  The  foundation 
material  used  in  establishing  this  breed  were  the 
sheep  known  as  Morfe  Commons,  the  Longmynd 
sheep,  and  also  those  of  the  Cannock  Chase.  A 
writer,  referring  to  the  evolution  of  the  Shropshire, 
sums  it  up  briefly  as  follows :  "The  original  heath 
breeds  of  the  Longmynd  range  in  Shropshire  and 
Cannock  Chase  in  Staffordshire,  having  horns  and 
black  faces,  were  improved  first  with  Southdown 
blood  and  afterwards  by  selection  until  the  present 
Shropshire  breed  was  established.  Two  of  the 
most  celebrated  founders  of  the  breed  were  Mr. 
Samuel  Meire,  who  made  use  of  both  Southdown 
and  Leicester  blood,  and  Mr.  George  Adney,  who, 
beginning  with  a  sheep  descended  from  a  Southdown 
cross,  brought  his  flock  to  extraordinary  perfection 
by  selection  and  breeding."  Plymley,  in  his  "  General 
View  of  the  Agriculture  of  Shropshire"  (page  260), 
published  in  1803,  says  of  the  Longmynd  sheep : 
"There  is  a  breed  of  sheep  on  the  Longmynd  with 
horns  and  black  faces  that  seems  an  indigenous  sort ; 
they  are  nimble,  hardy,  and  weigh  near  ten  pound 


90  Sheep-Farming 

per  quarter  when  fattened.  Their  fleeces  upoii 
an  average  may  weigh  two  and  one  half  pounds,  of 
which  one  half  pound  will  be  brechen  or  coarse  wool 
and  is  sold  distinct  from  the  rest.  The  farmers 
of  the  hill  country  seem  to  think  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage they  derive  from  the  access  of  foreign  stock 
is  from  the  cross  of  the  Southdown  with  the  Long- 
mynd  sheep ;  the  produce  they  state  to  be  as  hardy 
and  to  bite  as  close  as  the  Longmynd  sheep,  and  the 
weight  of  the  carcass  is  increased." 

In  1792  the  sheep  of  England  were  subjected  to 
the  investigations  of  the  Bristol  Wool  Society,  and 
they  reported  on  the  Morf e  Common  sheep  as  follows  : 
"On  Morfe  Common  near  Bridgeworth,  which 
contains  about  600,000  acres,  there  are  about  10,000 
sheep  kept  during  the  summer  months  which  pro- 
duce wool  of  superior  quality.  They  are  considered 
a  native  breed  —  a  black-faced  or  brown  or  spotted 
faced,  horned  sheep,  little  subject  to  either  rot  or 
scab,  .  .  .  clipping  nearly  two  pounds  of  fleece  ex- 
elusive  of  the  breeching,  which  may  be  taken  at 
one  seventh  or  one  eighth  part  of  the  whole."  The 
writer  who  quotes  the  foregoing  continues:  "This 
appears  to  have  been  the  original  stock  from  which 
the  present  breed  of  Shropshire  Downs  has  sprung. 
As  the  country  advanced,  and  the  breed  became  more 
valuable  for  their  carcasses  as  well  as  for  their  wool, 
the  Morfe  Common  sheep  were  crossed  with  other 
breeds,  but  more  particularly  with  the  long-wooled 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  91 

Leicester  and  Cotswold  or  the  short-wooled  South- 
downs." 

Improvement  of  the  early  Shropshire.  —  The  sheep 
that  were  the  original  source  of  the  Shropshire  were 
noted  chiefly  for  the  high  quahty  of  the  wool  that 
they  produced.     In  a  prize  report  on  the  Agriculture 
of  Shropshire,   the  following  occurs:    The  quality 
of  the  Shropshire  Down  wool  is  exceedingly  good, 
and  the  fleeces  average  good  weight.     The  fleeces 
from  ewes  average  from  five  to  eight  pounds ;  wethers 
fifteen  months  old,  seven  to  eight  pounds ;  yearling 
rams,   eight  to   twelve  pounds;  but  this   excessive 
weight  is  generally  accompanied  by  coarseness,  which 
depreciates  the  value  of  the  fleece.     As  far  back  as 
the  fourteenth  century,  we  find  the  Shropshire  wool 
considered    the    choicest    in    England.  .  .  .     Sub- 
sequently in  a  work  published  in  1694  ("The Interest 
of  England,"  page    4)   it    is  stated:  "Our  Shrop- 
shire wool   is   not    to  be   equaled   in   its    kind   by 
any  part  of  the  world  and  is  suitable  to  almost 
any   degree  of  quahty."     Another    early  chronicler 
says:    "The  account  previously  given  of  the  price 
of  Shropshire  wool  (£9  65.  U.  per  sack),  the  highest 
in  England,  is  in  a  great  degree  confirmatory  of  this 
opinion,  and  was  composed  most  probably  of  the 
fleeces  of  the  more  common  sheep,  which  were  so  long 
the  pride  and  boast  of  Shropshire,  produced  as  they 
did  the  finest  wool  in  England,  the  superior  to  the 
Rylands."     From    this    and    the    facts    previously 


92  Sheep-Farming 

presented,  it  is  clear  that  the  chief  characteristics 
of  the  original  Shropshire  was  the  production  of 
a  very  fine  quality  of  wool.  At  a  meeting  of  a 
farmer's  club  in  the  county  of  Shropshire,  Mr.  J. 
Meire,  the  first  improver  of  this  breed,  is  quoted  as 
saying:  "It  is  not  attempted  to  be  denied  that  the 
Shropshire  is  a  cross-bred  sheep.  The  original  herd 
was  horned,  and  the  first  attempt  at  improvement 
was  to  get  rid  of  these  incumbrances ;  and  there  is 
little  doubt  that  this  was  effected  by  a  cross  of  the 
Southdowns.  This  sheep  was  well  adapted  for  the 
Downs,  but  for  the  inclosures  of  the  Shropshire 
something  more  docile  was  required ;  consequently 
recourse  was  had  to  the  Leicester."  In  discussing 
the  work  accomplished  by  Mr.  Meire,  another  writer 
describes  the  source  and  direction  of  the  improve- 
ment as  follows:  "Mr.  Meire  was  a  good  judge 
of  stock  and  set  to  work  upon  the  coarse  Shropshire, 
going  chiefly  for  these  points  —  straight  spine  with 
well-sprung  ribs,  oblique  shoulders,  and  good  rumps. 
These  points  could  not  be  obtained  by  cultivation 
and  selection  alone,  and  Mr.  Meire  introduced  the 
SouthdowTi,  buying  or  hiring  rams  from  the  late  Mr. 
J.  Ellmann,  of  Glynde.  Aptitude  to  feed,  with 
short  back  and  chine,  were  derived  from  a  cross  of 
Leicester  blood  introduced  wdth  great  judgment. 
Having  thus  obtained  what  he  desired  from  us,  Mr. 
Meire  endeavored  to  fix  the  same  by  close  breeding." 
Another  authority  indicates  the  improvement  that 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  93 

was  made  as  follows:  "Mr.  Meire,  the  great 
Shropshire  improver,  first  used  Leicesters  on  the 
Shrops  to  give  them  fatter  backs,  and  then  South- 
downs  to  darken  their  faces."  There  is  abundant 
evidence  in  the  foregoing  statements  to  indicate 
that  the  Shropshire  derives  its  merits  from  many- 
sources. 

Attaining  the  status  of  a  breed.  —  The  first  Shrop- 
shires  to  attract  public  attention  were  shown  by  Mr. 
Samuel  Meire  of  Castle  Hill  near  Much  Wenlock, 
Shropshire,  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  Show 
at  Gloucester  in  1853.  The  record  in  the  Journal 
of  this  society  for  that  year  notes  that  Mr.  Meire's 
exhibit  received  recommendations.  Mr.  R.  Mil- 
ward  in  a  report  on  the  exhibition  of  Live  Stock  at 
the  Gloucester  meeting  of  the  society  says:  "The 
new  class  of  Shropshire  Downs  was  very  successful; 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  society  will  recognize  them 
as  a  distinct  breed."  This  is  the  first  official  refer- 
ence to  the  Shropshire.  The  sheep  shown  must 
have  been  of  some  merit  to  be  worthy  of  this  recom- 
mendation, which,  however,  was  not  acted  upon 
until  some  years  later.  It  was  not  until  1859  at  the 
same  society's  show,  that  the  Shropshire  again  made 
a  notable  exhibit.  Representatives  of  the  breed 
were  shown  in  the  class  "  Short-wooled  (not  Shrop- 
shires),"  and  in  the  competition  for  the  special  prizes 
offered  for  Shropshires,  there  were  eight  flocks  repre- 
sented and  a  dozen  others  included  among  the  list 


94  Sheep-Farming 

of  recommendations.  In  1860  we  find  the  Shrop- 
shire  awarded  a  distinct  class  with  a  large  number  of 
flocks  represented.  Referring  to  this  exhibit,  one 
of  the  judges  stated:  "Perhaps  no  description  of 
sheep  excited  more  interest  in  the  show  yard  than 
these.  It  is  only  within  the  last  eight  or  ten  years 
that  they  have  come  prominently  into  notice;  and 
it  was  not  until  the  Canterbury  show  last  year  that 
their  claims  to  be  considered  a  distinct  breed  were 
recognized  by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society.  Yet 
here  we  find  them  in  greater  numbers  than  any  other 
breed  of  sheep  shown;  ...  it  is  impossible  not  to 
be  struck  with  the  appearance  of  these  sheep,  as  a 
most  useful,  rent-paying  kind  of  animal;  and  if 
they  have  not  yet  attained  that  uniformity  of  char- 
acter, which  we  are  accustomed  to  see,  in  some  other 
herds,  it  must  be  admitted  that  they  possess  all  the 
elements  which  are  required  to  constitute  a  near 
approach  to  perfection,  and  all  the  Shropshire 
breeders  have  to  do  is  to  concentrate  these  qualities 
by  a  careful  and  judicious  selection.  In  the  class 
for  yearling  rams,  upwards  of  fifty  were  shown,  most 
of  them  heavy -fleshed  animals  of  considerable  merit ; 
a  few  indicating  the  effect  of  crossing  with  the  South- 
downs,  more  or  less  remotely,  and  possessing  less  size 
and  robustness  of  character,  though  with  more  com- 
pactness of  form,  and  finer  but  lighter  wool.  It 
would,  we  think,  be  well  for  the  breeders  of  these 
sheep  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  qualities  which  have 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  95 

brought  them  into  notice  are  —  their  aptitude  to 
produce  great  weight  and  quahty,  both  of  mutton 
and  wool  combined,  with  early  maturity,  while  they 
will  bear  to  be  stocked  more  thickly  than  other 
breeds  of  equal  weight."  There  is  good  evidence 
of  the  popularity  of  the  Shropshire,  even  at  that 
early  day,  in  the  fact  that  larger  numbers  were 
shown  than  of  any  other  breed.  The  same  has  been 
true  since.  The  Stewards  of  Stock  at  the  same 
society's  show  report  in  1864  that  "the  Shrop- 
shires  form,  we  believe,  the  largest  of  any  of  the 
sheep  classes  at  the  Royal  meeting  of  the  pres- 
ent year,  the  numbers  entered  being  as  follows : 
shearHng  rams,  46 ;  older  rams,  9  ;  shearling  ewes,  10. 
This  number  of  entries  we  consider  comparatively 
large,  taking  into  consideration  the  distance  at 
which  the  show  is  held  from  the  counties  whence 
they  sprung.  We  have  great  pleasure  in  recording 
our  opinion  that  the  Shropshires  exhibited  at  New- 
castle are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  uniform  in  char- 
acter and  quality,  and  combined  good  size  and 
weight  with  excellent  wool-growing  properties;  and 
that  they  are  in  all  respects  well  calculated  to  main- 
tain their  position  as  a  useful  and  profitable  breed, 
and  to  obtain  the  favor  of  those  persons  who  study 
the  breed  and  animals  capable  of  producing  at  once 
a  high  class  and  plentiful  supply  of  mutton  and  a 
heavy  fleece  of  good  wool.  In  making  our  selections, 
we  have  endeavored  to  adhere  to  the  type  we  con- 


96  Sheep-Farming 

sider  best  calculated  to  maintain  the  reputation  of 
the  breed,  and  to  promote  the  advantage  of  sheep 
breeders  and  the  public  generally;  and  while  we 
have  kept  in  view  the  importance  of  producing  a 
heavy  fleece,  we  have  not  forgotten  the  necessity 
of  recommending  the  animals  most  capable  of  pro- 
ducing muscular  flesh,  and  those  best  calculated 
in  their  own  natures  to  perpetuate  a  symmetrical, 
heavy,  and  hardy  sheep.  We  are  pleased  to  note 
that  the  general  excellence  of  the  class  of  shearling 
rams  caused  us  much  struggle  in  making  our  de- 
cisions, no  fewer  than  eighteen  specimens  being 
ordered  by  us  into  the  ring  to  make  our  final  selec- 
tions from,  and  we  do  not  hesitate  in  pronouncing 
them  to  be  the  best  eighteen  sheep  we  ever  saw  to- 
gether." In  1884,  when  the  Royal  Society's  Show 
was  held  at  Shrewsbury,  a  central  point  in  the  na- 
tive district  of  the  breed,  eight  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  Shropshires  were  exhibited,  which  were  twice 
as  many  as  the  number  from  all  other  breeds.  In 
1883  the  first  volume  of  the  Shropshire  Flock  Book 
of  Great  Britain  was  issued,  the  first  British  sheep 
register  to  be  printed.  In  1855  the  breed  first  came 
to  America;  and  in  1884  the  American  Shropshire 
Registry  Association  was  formed,  and  the  first  vol- 
ume of  their  record  issued  in  1889. 

Type  of  the  Shropshires.  —  The  strength  of  the 
Shropshire  is  the  degree  to  which  they  combine  mut- 
ton and  wool  qualities  with  the  type  that  does  best 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  97 

as  a  useful  breeding  sheep.  They  are  neither  large 
nor  small,  for  in  comparison  with  the  smaller  South- 
downs  and  the  larger  Oxford,  they  may  be  said  to 
be  of  medium  size.  The  typical  Shropshire  is  hardly 
equaled  in  style,  as  the  head  is  held  in  easy  poise  by 
the  neck,  which  rises  erect  from  the  shoulder,  and  not 
stuck  straight  forward  as  on  some  other  breeds. 
The  body  runs  straight  from  the  turn  of  the  neck 
to  the  top  of  the  tail,  and  in  best  representatives, 
the  back  is  flat  and  solid,  and  not  narrow  and  sharp. 
The  length  and  depth  of  the  hind  quarter  is  a  fea- 
ture of  the  carcass  that  has  improved  greatly  within 
recent  years.  The  inclination  to  be  short  and 
sharp  behind  has  been  corrected  by  careful  attention 
in  breeding.  A  feature  that  has  contributed  to 
the  style  of  the  Shropshire  is  the  manner  in  which 
the  legs  support  the  body.  In  the  most  attractive 
type,  instead  of  the  legs  standing  under  the  body, 
they  are  squarely  placed  at  the  four  corners  of  it. 
The  closely  knit  frame  of  a  typical  and  vigorous 
Shropshire,  wrapped  in  a  fleece  of  dense  and  fine 
fiber,  from  the  bridge  of  the  nose  to  the  hind  heel, 
presents  a  picture  of  as  much  indifference  to  the 
storm's  course  as  it  would  seem  possible  to  make 
from  all  the  attributes  of  sheep  life.  In  the  ram  the 
head  should  be  strong  in  features,  without  coarseness, 
wide  between  the  eyes,  comparatively  short,  and 
also  wide  in  the  muzzle.  The  eye  should  be  large, 
and   as   near   as   possible   the   crystal   clearness   of 


98  Sheep-Farming 

spring  water.  The  small,  erect  ear  should  be  sharp, 
pointed,  and  not  heavy  or  pendulous.  The  nose  and 
face  should  be  a  rich  brown,  verging  towards  a  soft 
black  in  color,  and  the  bridge  of  it  should  be  closely 
covered  with  wool  that  does  not  show  any  inclina- 
tion to  peel  about  the  cheeks.  The  neck  should 
hold  the  head  erect  and  be  stout  and  short  and  drop 
evenly  to  the  shoulder.  The  back  should  be  flat, 
firm,  and  well  covered,  the  loin  wide  and  meaty,  and 
the  hindquarter  above  well  covered  and  coming 
out  square.  Below  the  region  of  the  twist,  there 
should  be  plump,  firm  muscle,  and  on  the  outside  of 
the  thigh,  the  covering  should  be  thick,  giving  a  full 
leg  of  mutton.  The  hock  should  be  open -angled, 
dropping  straight,  and  not  have  the  point  of  it  stick- 
ing sharply  out  from  the  body.  The  leg  should 
have  wool  running  well  down  on  it,  and  the  pasterns 
should  be  stout  and  strong.  In  front,  the  chest 
should  come  out  full  and  rounded,  and  not  narrow 
and  sharp.  The  shoulder  on  top  must  be  compact 
and  also  fit  closely  to  the  body  on  the  side.  The 
spring  of  the  rib  should  be  such  as  to  meet  the 
shoulder  flush  and  also  give  the  body  a  round,  cir- 
cular, and  compact  appearance  that  is  usually  the 
leading  attribute  of  the  easy  keeper.  In  the  ewe, 
the  main  differences  are  a  refinement  of  the  fea- 
tures of  the  head  —  slimmer,  longer  face,  and  that 
delicate  expression  of  femininity  which  means  a 
high  development  of  maternity.     Such  usually  means 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  99 

good  nursing  qualities,  free  milking  powers,  and  the 
desire  to  cater  to  the  comfort  of  her  young.  The 
fore  quarter  in  the  ewe  is  narrower  and  lighter  as  a 
rule  and  wider  in  loin  and  hip  in  conformity  with 
what  is  universally  known  as  the  female  type  in 
animal  life.  The  fleece  in  both  sexes  should  be  com- 
pact, clean  in  condition,  fine  in  quality,  and  with 
suflScient  length  and  weight  to  make  the  quality  of 
the  clip  satisfactory.  No  black  fibers  are  permis- 
sible anywhere,  and  the  black  hairs  of  the  legs  and 
face  should  not  find  their  way  into  the  fleece.  When 
open  at  any  point,  the  cleavage  should  be  clear,  and 
reveal  a  skin  of  a  light  cherry  color. 

Position  as  producers  of  mutton.  —  The  Shrop- 
shire is  an  early  maturing  sheep,  as  the  lambs  are 
usually  so  plump  and  smooth  that  they  are  ready 
for  market  any  time  within  the  year.  They  reach 
maturity  at  an  early  age,  but  do  not  weigh  as  much 
as  the  long-wooled  breeds  at  maturity,  nor  can  they 
show  in  daily  gain  the  rapid  increase  that  some  others 
may.  Their  gain,  however,  is  not  that  due  chiefly 
to  increase  in  frame,  as  in  the  instance  of  some  of  the 
long-wooled  breeds,  but  rather  to  a  combination  of 
increase  in  both  frame  and  flesh.  As  it  has  been 
expressed,  they  grow  and  fatten  together,  which 
gives  them  their  characteristic  early  maturity.  In 
1890  the  best  daily  gain  of  the  Shropshire  lambs  at 
the  Smithfield  Show,  namely,  .67  pound  per  head, 
was  only  surpassed  among  the  Down  breeds  by  a 


100  Sheep-Farming 

pen  of  Hampshires.  The  Shropshire  pen  averaged 
171  pounds  at  an  average  age  of  254  days.  The 
percentage  of  carcass  to  dressed  weight  in  the  in- 
stance of  these  lambs  was  60.8  per  cent.  The  next 
year  two  pens  of  Shropshire  lambs  succeeded  in 
each  making  an  average  daily  gain  of  .60  pound 
per  head.  The  one  averaged  164  pounds  at  an  aver- 
age of  270  days,  and  the  other  162  at  the  same  age. 

The  quality  of  Shropshire  mutton.  —  Being  fine 
in  bone,  skin,  and  fleece,  it  is  logical  to  assume  that 
the  Shropshire  produces  a  fine  quality  of  flesh.  In 
this  feature  they  rank  almost  with  the  Southdown, 
which  is  considered  preeminent  in  this  respect. 
Not  only  is  the  mutton  of  fine  quality,  but  it  is  also 
nice  in  its  mixture  of  fat  and  lean.  The  frame  of 
the  Shropshire  being  of  fine  texture  and  compara- 
tively light,  together  with  the  fact  that  they  are 
usually  well  developed  in  essential  mutton  parts, 
insures  a  high  percentage  of  edible  meat  in  propor- 
tion to  the  live  weight. 

Qualities  of  the  Shropshire  fleece.  —  In  respect  to 
the  quantity  of  wool  that  is  characteristic  of  a  Shrop- 
shire fleece,  ten  or  twelve  pounds  may  be  advanced 
as  a  fair  estimate.  The  wool  being  very  free  from 
excessive  yolk  and  also  clean  as  a  rule,  this  weight, 
in  view  of  these  facts,  is  favorable  to  the  breed.  The 
most  valuable  characteristic  of  the  fleece  is  its  den- 
sity, which  so  materially  assists  in  affording  the  sheep 
protection   from   the  inclemencies   of   the   weather. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  101 

The  length  of  the  staple  is  very  satisfactory  in  the 
present  market,  as  it  grades  as  a  medium  combing 
that  brings  a  higher  price  and  is  in  a  stronger  de- 
mand than  any  other  grade.  The  staple  is  from 
three  to  four  inches  long  uniformly  over  the  body. 
In  respect  to  the  quality  of  the  Shropshire  fleece, 
there  is  considerable  variation  amongst  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  breed,  but  not  more  so  than  in 
others,  excepting  the  higher-bred  Southdowns.  The 
fleece  of  the  best  representative  is  soft  and  fine,  with 
a  close,  even  crimp  from  one  end  of  the  fiber  to  the 
other.  Then  this  quality  is  characteristic  of  all 
regions  of  the  body,  though  there  are  individuals 
that  strongly  incline  to  coarseness  of  wool  about 
the  thigh,  neck,  and  head.  The  soundness  and 
strength  of  the  Shropshire  fiber  in  association  with 
its  combination  of  length  and  quality  add  greatly  to 
its  marketable  value,  as  these  are  important  qual- 
ities in  combing  wools.  In  respect  to  the  condition 
of  the  fleece,  the  Shropshire  is  in  the  fore  rank. 
The  fleece  being  dense,  dirt  and  dust  do  not  find 
ready  entrance,  and  as  the  wool  is  naturally  bright, 
it  has  a  high  position  in  regard  to  purity  and  bright- 
ness. In  lustre  it  is  seldom  that  a  Shropshire  fleece 
will  show  the  lustre  that  is  more  or  less  common 
among  the  long-wooled  breeds.  The  absence  of  lustre 
and  the  scarcity  of  yolk  are  frequently  associated, 
and  in  both,  the  fleeces  of  this  breed  do  not  occupy  as 
favorable  a  position  as  the  other  features  of  condition.. 


102  Sheep-Farming 

Characteristics  as  breeding  stock.  —  The  leading 
merit  of  the  Shropshire,  in  which  they  contest  for 
supremacy  only  with  the  Dorset,  is  the  degree  in 
which  they  meet  the  requirements  of  good  breed- 
ing stock.  The  rams  are  of  good  disposition,  and 
reliable  breeders,  but  it  is  to  the  ewes  that  we  look 
to  sustain  the  Shropshire's  reputation  for  good  breed- 
ing qualities.  The  ewes  are  excellent  mothers,  hav- 
ing the  disposition  to  be  attentive  to  their  lambs  in  a 
kindly  way,  and  also  having  characteristics  of  being 
prolific  and  milking  freely.  The  average  Shropshire 
flock  will  return  at  least  a  lamb  and  a  half  to  a  ewe, 
though  there  are  many  records  of  better  returns  than 
this.  A  peculiar  and  valuable  characteristic  is  the 
length  of  time  they  will  retain  their  utility  in  the 
flock.  It  is  not  infrequent  in  the  pure-bred  flocks 
to  find  ewes  ten  years  old  still  producing  as  good 
lambs  as  the  younger  members.  The  presence  of 
such  not  only  indicates  excellent  vigor,  but  also 
points  to  a  good  breeding  record  for  each  year,  as 
any  deviation  from  this  would  mean  disposal  as  a 
cull.  As  an  instance  in  point,  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  quote  one  from  among  many :  A  ewe  pur- 
chased at  a  sale  of  a  prominent  breeder  in  Shropshire 
in  1886  when  four  years  old  was  alive  and  well  in 
1893,  and  her  record  in  the  seven  years  was  the  pro- 
duction of  fourteen  lambs,  twins  each  year,  except- 
ing one  instance  of  a  single  and  one  of  triplets.  The 
ewe  was  eleven  years  old  at  the  time  the  data  were 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  103 

sent  in,  and  was  hearty  then.  In  permanency  of 
character,  the  Shropshire  occupies  a  favorable  posi- 
tion, though  they  have  hardly  been  able  to  equal 
the  older  breeds  up  to  this  time. 

Utility  for  crossing.  —  The  Shropshire  has  proven 
to  be  a  valuable  agent  in  improving  Merino  stocks 
so  that  they  may  more  perfectly  meet  the  demands 
of  the  present  market  for  mutton  and  wool.  The 
writer  experimented  with  this  cross  for  several  years 
until  the  stock  studied  included  sheep  of  the  first, 
second,  third,  and  fourth  crosses.  The  Merino  ewes 
employed  in  the  trial  were  typical  of  the  American 
Merino,  being  fine-fleeced,  large,  and  vigorous,  but 
without  any  appearance  of  mutton  quality.  The 
Shropshire  rams  used  were  typical  of  the  breed.  In 
the  first  cross,  of  the  Shropshire  ram  on  the  Merino 
ewes,  an  increase  in  size  and  a  much  smoother  ap- 
pearance of  the  body  resulted  from  the  nearer 
approach  to  mutton  form.  They  are  heavier  than 
the  original  Merinos  and  are  especially  better  in  the 
development  of  mutton  points.  The  fleece  is  ex- 
ceptional in  the  degree  to  which  it  meets  the  demand 
of  the  market  for  a  medium  combing  wool.  The 
fiber  is  coarser  and  longer  than  the  pure  Merino, 
but  these  qualities  in  connection  with  its  firmness 
and  strength  make  the  fleece  worth  more  in  the 
market.  The  weight  of  the  fleece  remained  about 
the  same.  The  improvement  consisted  in  weight, 
mutton   form,   and   feeding   qualities.     The   second 


104  Sheep-Farming 

cross,  that  is,  a  Shropshire  ram  on  the  first-cross 
ewes,  is  larger  and  fuller  in  mutton  points,  and  the 
fleece  is  longer  and  stronger  in  fiber,  though  lighter 
in  weight.  The  third  cross  is  a  still  nearer  approach 
to  the  Shropshire.  In  fact,  they  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  pure-bred  Shropshire,  and  for 
the  market  they  are  equally  profitable.  A  slightly 
greater  length  of  fiber,  more  strength,  and  coarse- 
ness characterizes  the  wool  of  this  cross,  while  there 
is  a  peculiar  softness  noticeable  in  the  fleeces  that 
with  their  density  add  greatly  to  their  value.  A 
point  noticeable  in  these  trials  was  the  rapidity  and 
certainty  with  which  the  Shropshire  transmitted 
their  characteristics  to  the  Merino.  The  Merino  is 
one  of  the  longest  established  breeds  that  we  have, 
and  consequently  quite  fixed  in  its  characteristics, 
yet  the  Shropshire  influence  very  materially  asserted 
itself  in  each  cross.  For  crossing  on  common  sheep, 
the  Shropshire  has  enjoyed  unequaled  popularity 
because  of  the  degree  to  which  it  is  capable  of 
improving  the  common  type  for  the  requirement 
of  our  wool  and  mutton  markets. 

Adaptability  of  Shropshire.  —  Compared  with  other 
breeds,  a  striking  feature  of  the  Shropshire  is  its 
cosmopolitan  nature.  As  may  be  seen  from  our 
classification  of  the  breeds,  and  as  may  be  learned 
from  a  personal  study  of  its  characteristics,  the 
Shropshire  occupies  a  middle  position.  They  are 
neither  small  nor  large  in  size,  they  are  medium  in 


f 


f3«^^ 


Fig.  24.  —  Cheviot  ram  and  ewe  shown  in  1911  by  G.  W.  Parnell,  Win- 
gate,  Ind.     (Page  131.) 


Fig.  25.  —  The  first  prize  Hampshire  flock  at  the  leading  shows  in  1911. 
Shown  by  C.  O.  Judd,  Kent,  Ohio.     (Page  105.) 

Plate  IX.    Cheviot  and  Hampshire  Sheep. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  105 

quality,  both  in  respect  to  frame  and  fleece,  and  in 
nearly  all  other  characteristics  they  occupy  a  simi- 
lar position.  Medium  development  in  many  direc- 
tions makes  them  sheep  of  exceptional  combinations, 
and  these  add  to  the  profit  they  make,  for  the  markets 
of  to-day  demand  a  finished  carcass  of  medium 
size.  Not  only  does  the  Shropshire  represent  a 
desirable  combination  from  the  market  point  of  view, 
but  they  also  show  a  union  of  many  useful  qualities 
from  the  breeder's  standpoint.  While  not  as  highly 
developed  in  the  direction  of  quick  gains  in  fatten- 
ing as  some  breeds,  they  have  become  the  stronger 
for  it  in  the  qualities  that  are  sought  for  in  brood 
ewes.  Exceptional  development  in  the  ability  to 
take  on  flesh  rapidly  is  somewhat  antagonistic  to 
free  milking  attributes  in  all  animals,  and  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  Shropshire  the  latter  leads  in  importance 
and  proflt  to  the  flock. 

The  Hampshire  (Fig.  25,  PL  IX) 

In  a  description  of  the  farming  of  Hampshire 
in  England,  an  early  writer  says  that  with  the  ex- 
ception of  an  outlying  block  of  land  to  the  north- 
west (which  he  estimates  at  325  square  miles)  the 
mainland  of  the  county  of  Hampshire  approaches 
in  form  to  the  parallelogram,  the  sides  of  which  face 
the  four  cardinal  points.  The  area  is  970,470  acres 
and  the  number  of  farms  3048,  and  most  of  these  are 


106  Sheep-Farming 

under  300  acres  in  extent.  The  main  water-shed 
line  of  this  county,  according  to  the  same  writer, 
begins  at  Inkpen,  Beacon,  972.8  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  in  the  North  Downs,  and  it  ends  at 
Butzer  Hill,  altitude  882.6  feet,  in  the  South  Downs. 
The  writer  before  quoted  estimates  the  central  chalk 
plateau  at  760  square  miles,  while  the  soil  of  the  rest 
of  the  country  is  made  up  of  clays,  marls,  sands,  and 
gravels. 

The  Hampshire  foundation  stock.  —  The  earliest 
recorded  description  of  the  foundation  stock  from 
which  the  Hampshire  was  evolved  was  written  by 
Messrs.  Abraham  and  William  Driver  for  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  of  Great  Britain  in  1794,  in  which 
they  say:  "The  Hampshire  sheep  is  horned  for  the 
most  part,  with  a  white  face,  though  some  few  have 
speckled  faces ;  formerly  they  were  long-legged  and 
narrow,  but  now  much  improved,  being  short -legged 
and  well-carcassed."  The  sheep  of  Wilts  and  Hants, 
the  original  source  of  the  Hampshire,  is  described 
as  follows:  "They  were  imposing-looking  animals, 
long  in  leg,  high  in  withers,  sharp  in  the  spine,  large, 
bony,  narrow,  with  big  heads,  curling  horns,  and 
Roman  noses.  They  died  out  in  Wiltshire  about  forty 
years  since.  They  lived  rather  longer  in  Hants,  their 
powers  of  enduring  long  traveling  and  severe  folding, 
hard  keeping,  and  working  recommending  them  as 
the  best  manure  carriers  for  the  light  lands,  which 
were  by  this  means  alone  kept  in  a  state  of  fertility." 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  107 

The  sources  of  improvement  of  Hampshire,  — 
Writing  of  the  sheep  of  South  Wiltshire,  or  the 
chalk  district,  a  report  of  1844  says:  "The  princi- 
pal live  stock  of  this  division  of  the  county  consists 
of  sheep,  for  which  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  of  the 
farms  is  pecuKarly  adapted.  Southdowns  are  nearly 
universally  the  breed  now,  and  although  the  sheep- 
fold  is  a  paramount  object  on  a  South  Wilts  farm, 
the  quality  of  the  animal  is  not  neglected.  As  much 
attention  has  of  late  years  been  paid  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  breed  of  sheep  in  Wiltshire  as  in  any 
county  in  England.  Many  of  the  flockmasters  of 
Wilts  have  by  judicious  selection  of  stock  from  Sus- 
sex (the  home  of  the  Southdown)  brought  the  flocks 
to  a  high  state  of  perfection,  and  their  stock  being 
dispersed  throughout  the  county,  has  greatly  im- 
proved the  breed  of  sheep.  There  are  a  few  who 
prefer  the  Hampshire  or  coarser  kinds  of  sheep ;  and 
whether  the  forcing  of  lambs  from  their  birth  to  be 
fat  in  the  autumn  or  for  grazing  as  tegs  is  adopted, 
it  appears  well,  as  the  extraordinary  production  of 
that  breed  brought  to  the  fairs  within  the  last  few 
years  will  prove;  but  the  generahty  of  farms  are 
stocked  with  Southdowns."  A  more  detailed  ac- 
count of  the  sources  of  improvement  comes  from  the 
pen  of  John  Wilkison,  who  says:  "In  the  begin- 
ning of  the  century  rams  were  procured  from  the 
best  Sussex  downs,  less  picturesque,  but  more  sym- 
metrical ;    faces  and  legs  dark  brown,  fore  quarters 


108  Sheep-Farming 

wide  and  deep,  back  and  loins  broad,  ribs  curved, 
back  level,  hind  quarters  square,  tail  well  set  on, 
limbs  short,  bone  fine,  wool  close  and  firm,  features 
intelligent,  forehead  prominent  and  carrying  a  good 
crest."  The  same  writer  is  the  only  authority  that 
may  be  quoted  in  support  of  the  statement  that 
the  Cotswold  has  also  been  used  in  crossing  on  the 
original  Hampshire.  Continuing,  he  says:  "But 
the  existing  breed  has  been  further  mixed.  It  is 
not  everywhere  a  simple  cross  between  the  old 
Hampshires  and  the  Sussex.  Some  thirty  years  or 
more  since,  Mr.  John  Twynam  (now  residing  in 
Winchester)  put  Cotswold  rams  to  his  Hampshire 
Down  ewes."  Another  source  of  improvement  in 
the  Hampshire  was  the  better  care  in  feeding  that 
was  given  them.  Instead  of  being  regarded  as  "ma- 
nure carriers  for  light  land,"  they  had  given  them  an 
unusual  variety  of  the  best  foods  in  liberal  quanti- 
ties. This  is  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  Hampshire 
management  at  the  time,  and  it  has  existed  so  for 
years.  As  early  as  1861,  John  Wilkison,  writing  of 
the  usual  care  given  to  the  feeding  of  the  lambs, 
says,  "They  never  see  an  empty  trough  from  their 
birth  to  their  death."  As  to  the  management  that 
assisted  greatly  in  the  improvement  of  this  breed  of 
sheep,  a  modern  writer  describes  it  in  detail  as  fol- 
lows:  "Ewes  are  given  one  pound  of  cake  per 
head  daily  with  turnips  and  hay.  As  soon  as  the 
lambs  will  eat  they  are  given  a  corner  to  themselves 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  109 

where  they  are  fed  finely  ground  linseed  cake,  split 
peas,  oats,  and  crushed  malt.  The  lamb  hurdle  is 
from  this  time  an  institution.  By  its  means  they 
run  forward  and  cup  the  first  green  food  of  the  sea- 
son in  the  form  of  swede  tops  or  rape.  They  are 
getting  at  this  time  eight  different  kinds  of  food,  hay 
turnips,  greens  or  rape,  linseed  cake,  peas,  oats,  salt, 
and  milk."  "Take,  for  example,  a  fine  mid-summer 
day  when  the  lambs  awaken  from  a  fold  of  vetches. 
The  shepherd  is  up  betimes  and  begins  by  giving 
them  an  allowance  of  cake.  He  then  grinds  some 
mangel  into  the  trough,  which  they  eat  with  great 
relish.  They  are  next  admitted  to  a  fresh  fold  of 
vetches,  after  which  they  are  quietly  walked  away  to 
a  neighboring  fold  of  good  rape  or  cabbage.  After 
two  hours  or  more  and  in  the  heart  of  the  afternoon, 
they  are  allowed  to  spread  themselves  over  some  old 
aftermath  clover,  after  which  they  return  to  the 
vetch  field,  and  after  receiving  another  feed  of  corn 
they  lie  down  to  well-earned  repose,  having  increased 
their  weight  over  one  pound  each.  Hay  chaff  is 
frequently  suppHed  even  in  summer  by  way  of 
keeping  them  firm  in  their  bowels;  thus  a  lamb 
may  easily  partake  of  six  or  eight  pounds  of  food. 
Rape  or  cabbage  or  kale  give  way  to  turnips  in 
late  July  or  early  August,  and  the  allowance  of 
corn  is  kept  up  from  one  pound  to  one  and  one  half 
pounds  per  head.  This  allowance  is  pretty  con- 
stant from   birth,  considering   the   cake   given  the 


110  Sheep-Farming 

ewes,  which  is,  of  course,  given  for  the  benefit  of 
the  lambs." 

These  accounts  make  it  evident  that  cross-breed- 
ing was  the  first  source  of  improvement,  while  the 
second  and  most  influential  source  was  the  high  feed- 
ing and  culture  that  followed  the  breeding  operations. 

Extent  of  the  Hampshire  improvement.  —  In  a 
prize  essay  written  in  1847,  Robert  Smith  says : 
"The  Hampshire  Downs  were  originally  very  large 
and  coarse,  but  of  late  years  they  have  been  im- 
proved by  an  admixture  of  the  Sussex  Down;  still, 
however,  they  retain  an  extra  degree  of  size,  bone, 
and  fleece  to  any  other,  and  are  easily  distinguished 
by  those  characteristics.  Breeders  who  prefer  strong 
sheep  consider  this  variety  better  than  any  other 
for  enduring  hardships  and  for  general  purposes." 
Writing  a  few  years  later,  1855,  another  authority 
states:  "This  rapidly  increasing  breed  of  sheep  ap- 
pears to  be  the  result  of  a  recent  cross  between  the 
pure  Southdown  and  the  old  horned  white-face  sheep 
of  Hampshire  and  Wiltshire,  by  which  the  hard- 
working though  fine  quality  of  the  former  is  combined 
with  the  superior  size  and  constitution  of  the  latter. 
The  breed  was  commenced  at  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century  and,  by  a  judicious  crossing,  now  pos- 
sesses the  leading  characteristics  of  the  two  parent 
breeds.  Their  leading  characteristics,  as  compared 
with  the  Southdowns,  are  increased  size,  equal  ma- 
turity, and   a  hardier  constitution."     A  few  years 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  111 

later,  1861,  Mr.  John  Wilkinson  gives  his  opinion 
on  the  influence  of  the  cross:  "A  judicious  system 
of  crossing  preserved  the  good  quaHties  of  both 
breeds.  The  hard-working  qualities  and  hardy 
constitution  and  the  superior  size  of  the  one  have 
been  combined  with  the  smooth  limbs,  short  legs, 
broader  back,  rounder  barrel,  more  compact  frame, 
increased  flesh,  and  kinder  qualities  of  the  other. 
The  horns  have  disappeared,  the  color  of  the  face 
has  turned  from  white  to  brown,  and  there  is  gen- 
erally more  of  the  Sussex  than  of  the  Hampshire 
Down  left.  Still,  even  in  appearance  the  new  Hamp- 
shire assert  their  descent  from  the  old  Hampshire 
mothers.  They  are  larger  than  the  Sussex  Downs, 
and  more  roomy,  generally  coarser,  and  of  a  heavier 
frame.  Their  wool  is  of  a  large  staple  and  coarser, 
not  so  close,  and  not  curling  with  spiral  ends.  But 
however  extensively  crossed  before,  the  Hampshire 
blood  is  now  generally  kept  pure,  though  there  are 
not  wanting,  here  and  there,  signs  of  degeneracy, 
sheep  with  tendencies  to  hairy  wool,  big  bones  and 
heads,  and  indications  of  the  coarse  and  unthrifty 
ewe  from  which  they  came."  The  Hampshire  has 
been  shown  at  the  Royal  Society  Show  as  early  as 
1844,  but  the  first  description  of  an  exhibit  was 
made  in  1862,  when  the  subjoined  comment  was 
made  on  those  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  Show:  "The  Hampshire  Down  sheep  pre- 
sented in  their  various  classes  the  usual  difference 


112  Sheep-Farming 

of  type  between  the  original  best  County  Down 
sheep  with  its  large  form  and  strong  constitution 
and  the  'improved  Hampshire  Down'  with  its 
more  symmetrical  form,  better  flesh,  and  finer  wool. 
In  each  type  their  tendency  to  early  maturity,  which 
has  given  this  breed  of  sheep  their  high  character, 
has  been  properly  preserved,  and  this  is  evidently  a 
great  point  with  the  breeders.  In  the  shearling  rams 
great  size  and,  in  most  instances,  excellent  quality 
of  flesh  and  wool  are  found ;  but  the  acceptance  of  a 
black  face  as  a  type  of  the  breed  has  led,  in  many 
instances,  to  a  tendency  to  rustiness  if  not  blackness 
of  the  wool  around  the  ears  and  poll.  We  regard  this 
as  a  great  defect,  which  in  common  with  occasional 
thickness  in  the  neck  or  scrag  exhibits  itself  in  some 
eases  throughout  all  the  classes."  The  next  year 
the  report  of  the  Stewards  of  the  show  was  to  the 
following  effect:  "The  last-named  gentlemen  [Mr. 
W.  Humphrey  and  Mr.  James  Rawlence]  were  the 
first  who  set  to  work  in  good  earnest  to  improve 
the  old  Hampshire  breed,  which  originally  was  cele- 
brated for  its  big  head,  long  ears,  and  thin-fleshed 
back.  In  neither  class,  referring  to  the  shearlings 
and  the  older  sheep,  were  the  enormous  heads  and 
upright  shoulders  to  be  found  which  formerly  pre- 
vailed so  much  among  the  Hampshire  sheep;  all 
were  level  in  their  character,  form,  and  wool,  and,  in 
fact,  with  such  general  uniformity  that  they  might 
all  have  come  from  the  same  flock."     These  improve- 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  113 

ments  have  come  about  largely  by  crossing  and  selec- 
tion assisted  also  by  high  feeding,  but  the  chief  bene- 
fit that  has  followed  the  latter  features  has  been  the 
development  of  early  maturity.  A  breeder  has 
summed  this  characteristic  in  the  following  words: 
"Their  principal  points  of  excellence  He  in  their- 
extraordinary  early  maturity  coupled  with  a  yield 
of  mutton  of  splendid  flavor  and  quality  and  with 
an  abundance  of  fleece  of  finely  fibered  wool.  As  to 
the  first  point,  they  are  unrivaled  and  might  safely 
be  pitted  against  any  other  sheep  at  heavy  odds  and 
with  heavy  stakes  and  would  then  undoubtedly 
prove  winners.  A  sheep  that  will  increase  these 
qualities  every  day  from  birth  to  maturity,  and 
weigh  ninety  pound  carcass  or  dead  weight  at  twenty- 
six  weeks  old,  may  be  regarded  with  some  surprise, 
and  yet  this  result  has  been  excelled  by  breeders  of 
the  improved  Hampshire  Down.  I  have  had  lambs 
increase  .81  pound  per  day  for  the  first  half  of  their 
lives,  an  increase  which  compares  very  favorably 
with  the  .67  pound  recorded  from  the  Lincolns 
or  the  .52  pound  recorded  by  the  Southdowns." 
It  was  in  1887  that  the  American  Hampshire  Down 
Breeders'  Association  was  formed,  and  in  1890  the 
first  volume  of  their  flock  book  was  issued.  The 
breed  has  long  before  this  attained  the  fixity  type  and 
characteristics  necessary  to  receive  registration  as  a 
breed. 

Characteristics  of  Hampshire.  —  The  standard  of 


114  Sheep-Farming 

excellence  and  scale  of  points  adopted  by  the  Ameri- 
can Hampshire  Down  Association  are  as  follows : 
Head  moderately  large  but  not  coarse,  well  covered 
with  wool  on  forehead  and  cheeks ;  nostrils  wide ; 
color  (head  and  legs)  dark  brown  or  black;  eyes 
prominent  and  lustrous ;  ears  moderately  long  and 
thin  and  dark  brown  or  black  in  color ;  legs  we' 
under  outside  of  body,  straight  with  good  size  of 
bone,  black ;  neck  a  regular  taper  from  shoulders  to 
head  without  any  hollow  in  front  of  shoulders,  set 
high  up  on  body ;  shoulders  deep  and  full  in  heart 
place,  with  breast  prominent  and  full ;  back  straight, 
with  full  spring  of  rib ;  loin  vv^ide  and  straight  with- 
out depression  in  front  of  hips ;  quarters  long  from 
hips  to  rump  without  sloping,  and  deep  in  thigh, 
broad  in  hips  and  rump,  with  full  hams,  inside  of 
thighs  full. 

Mutton  qualities.  —  While  the  Hampshires  are  not 
the  finest  in  the  quality  of  frame  or  flesh,  they  have 
the  reputation  of  surpassing  all  others  in  the  rapid 
gain  the  lambs  m:]:e  when  well  fed.  At  the  Smithfield 
fat  stock  show  in  England,  they  have  in  the  majority 
of  instances  led  all  others  in  the  rate  of  daily  gain. 
In  1882  the  pen  of  Hampshires  averaged  .75  pound 
per  head  daily,  which  was  only  equaled  by  the  pen  of 
Leicester s ;  in  1883  two  of  the  Hampshire  pens  aver- 
aged .77  pound,  which  led  all  others,  and  in  1885  they 
again  led  with  a  daily  gain  of  .76  pound,  and  in  1886 
they  were  tied  for  first  position  with  the  Lincolns, 


Fig.  26.  —  Champion  Oxford  ram  at  the  In- 
ternational Live  Stock  Exposition  in  1911. 
Shown  by  George  McKerrow  and  Sons, 
Pewaukee,  Wis.     (Page  117.) 


>^ 


Fig.  27.  —  Champion  Oxford  ewe  at  International  Live  Stock  Exposition  in 
1911.     Shown  by  George  McKerrow  and  Sons.     (Page  117.) 

Plate  X.     Oxford  Down  Sheep 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  115 

as  both  had  representative  pens  that  made  .76 
pound  per  head  daily.  Their  record  begins  again 
in  1889,  when  the  best  pen  of  Hampshire  lambs 
made  an  average  daily  gain  of  .67  pound,  averaging 
187  pounds  live  weight  at  an  average  age  of  277 
days.  In  1891  the  best  gain  made  by  Hampshires 
in  the  lamb  class  was  .70  by  a  pen  averaging  220 
pounds  at  an  average  age  of  314  days.  In  1892 
the  best  gain  among  the  Hampshire  lambs  was  .73 
pound,  made  by  a  pen  averaging  220  pounds  at  an 
average  age  of  314  days.  These  lambs  in  the 
slaughter  test  returned  a  percentage  of  57.73  of  carcass 
to  live  weight.  In  1894  the  best  gain  in  the  Hamp- 
shire lamb  classes  was  .71  pound,  made  by  a  pen 
averaging  218  pounds  at  an  average  age  of  307  days. 
The  lambs  in  the  slaughter  test  yielded  a  percentage 
of  64.68.  In  the  yearling  class,  the  greatest  daily 
gain  was  .42,  made  by  two  pens,  each  averaging  660 
days  old  and  weighing  an  average  of  280  pounds  and 
282  pounds.  One  of  these  pens  dressed  65.84  in  the 
slaughter  test.  This  year  the  highest  rate  of  gain  was 
.82  pound  per  head  daily,  they  averaging  246  pounds 
at  an  average  age  of  300  days.  While  the  Hamp- 
shires have  made  a  good  record,  yet  at  the  later 
shows  they  have  not  been  able  to  maintain  their 
previous  position,  as  the  long-wooled  breeds,  espe- 
cially the  Cotswold,  have  been  surpassing  them  in  this 
single  feature  of  rate  of  gain.  In  rate  of  daily 
increase,  it  is  likely  that  the  Hampshires  surpass  the 


116  Sheep-Farming 

rest  of  the  Down  breeds,  but  they  are  inferior  to  the 
latter  in  quality  of  frame  and  flesh.  The  Hampshires 
are  inclined  to  be  coarse  in  bone,  coarse  in  texture  of 
skin,  and  also  in  fleeces,  all  of  which  are  opposed  to 
fine  quality  of  mutton. 

Characteristics  of  Hampshire  fleece.  —  The  fleece 
of  the  Hampshire,  while  possessing  the  quality  of 
density,  is  usually  light,  as  eight  pounds  would  be  an 
average  return  in  unwashed  wool  from  a  flock.  The 
wool  is  coarse,  as  a  rule,  and  frequently  discolored. 
Some  districts  in  their  native  home  have  for  a  soil  a 
red  clay  which  discolors  the  wool  and  renders  the 
fleece  less  valuable.  The  fleece  covers  the  body, 
as  it  does  not  peel  much  from  the  head  or  from  the 
belly.  As  a  rule,  the  fleece  is  moist,  indicating  a 
healthy  and  satisfactory  condition  in  respect  to  the 
quantity  of  yolk  present.  The  wool  is  of  medium 
length,  being   about  three  inches   long. 

Attributes  for  breeding  purposes.  —  The  Hampshire 
is  equally  prolific  with  the  other  Down  breeds.  It 
has  been  advanced  against  the  breed  that  the  lambs 
make  trouble  in  lambing,  owing  to  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  head.  It  is  certain  that  one  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  breed  is  to  drop  very  heavy  and 
vigorous  lambs.  One  instance  has  been  registered 
of  a  Hampshire  lamb  weighing  eighteen  pounds  at 
birth.  Ordinary  lambs  will  only  weigh  one  half  of 
this.  The  ewes  and  the  rams  are  exceptional  in 
constitution.     For  crossing  purposes,  the  Hampshire 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  117 

has  found  favor  when  early  lambs  find  a  profitable 
market,  for  the  lambs  of  this  breeding  weigh  heavier 
at  an  early  age.  On  ewes  that  have  an  abundance 
of  quality,  the  Hampshire  would  make  a  good  cross 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  lambs  to  meet  the  wants 
of  the  early  market. 

Adaptability  of  Hampshire.  —  Under  conditions 
where  the  food  is  abundant  and  the  forced  system  of 
breeding  may  be  followed,  the  Hampshire  will  give 
returns  in  gain  equal  to  the  long-wooled  breeds, 
while  they  may  be  said  to  be  able  to  withstand  in- 
clemencies of  the  weather  to  better  advantage,  as 
their  fleeces  are  closer  and  they  are  naturally  more 
vigorous.  For  folding  on  green  crops,  rape,  vetches, 
or  turnips,  with  heavy  grain  feeding  in  addition, 
there  is  no  breed  among  the  Downs  that  will  give 
returns  equal  to  the  Hampshire,  and  where  this 
system  of  management  may  be  adopted,  and  the 
market  is  not  too  sensitive  in  regard  to  the  quality, 
the  Hampshire  will  prove  as  profitable  as  any  breed. 

The  Oxford  Down  (PL  X) 

The  Oxford  Down  has  originated  from  crossing 
Cots  wold  rams  on  Hampshire  and  Southdown  ewes. 
One  of  the  first  breeders  writes:  "The  Oxfordshire 
Down  breed  of  sheep  is  the  result  of  a  cross  between 
a  long-wooled  ram  and  a  Southdown  or  Hampshire 
Down  ewe.     The  crossing  was  commenced  as  far 


118  Sheep-Farming 

back  as  1830.  Mr.  Twyman  claims  to  be  the  pio- 
neer in  this  movement.  Be  this  as  it  may,  he  may 
safely  assert  that  he  was  the  first  to  call  public  at- 
tention to  his  mode  of  crossing.  As  far  back  as 
November  27,  1837,  this  worthy  and  enterprising 
gentleman  wrote  the  Mark  Lane  Express.  'It  is 
seven  years  since  I  introduced  an  upland  Cotswold 
ram  among  a  few  Hampshire  Down  ewes,  the  produce 
of  which,  living  with  the  Downs,  soon  con^dnced  me  of 
their  superiority.'  "  Contemporaries  of  Mr.  Twyman 
were  Mr.  Samuel  Dreuce  of  Eynsham,  Mr.  W.  Gillett 
of  Southleigh,  Mr.  Blake  of  Stanton  Harcourt,  Mr. 
Hitchman  of  Little  IVIilton,  and  Mr.  Joseph  Water- 
peny.  Mr.  Dreuce,  in  an  article  in  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  Journal  of  1853,  page  212,  observed : 
"It  is  now  twenty  years  since  I  began  crossing  be- 
tween the  Southdown  and  Cotswold  sheep,  and  with 
the  ordinary  skill  of  sheep-farming,  I  find  no  difficulty 
in  keeping  the  form  and  the  size  of  the  animal  as  it 
should  be."  The  writer  before  referred  to,  Mr. 
Howard,  was  one  of  the  oldest  living  breeders  of 
Oxfordshire  Downs,  he  having  been  a  prize  winner 
at  Smithfield  as  early  as  1849. 

Formation  of  Oxford  Down  as  a  breed.  —  An  early 
authority  gives  the  following  account  of  the  progress 
made  in  the  formation  of  this  breed  at  that  time : 
"The  produce  of  good  and  wxll-selected  cross-bred 
ewes  and  rams  are  now  more  uniform  in  color  and 
size  than  sheep  bred  from  Down  mothers  and  Cots- 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  119 

wold  sires.  There  formerly  existed  much  difficulty 
in  keeping  a  newly  formed  half-bred  flock  to  one 
character.  The  first  cross  and  their  produce  will 
be  dissimilar;  some  will  partake  too  much  of  the 
long  wool,  while  others  are  too  small  and  short- 
coated.  The  owner  formerly  divided  his  flock  into 
three  parts,  putting  a  half-bred  ram  to  the  ewes  that 
were  about  right,  a  Cotswold  to  the  smaller  ones,  and 
a  Down  to  the  coarser  sheep.  By  constant  atten- 
tion to  these  points,  a  flock  may  be  brought  to  some 
degree  of  uniformity;  but  the  breeder  frequently 
found  that  the  fleece  was  a  little  too  short  or  the  face 
rather  too  white ;  by  using  pure  Cotswold  or  Down 
rams,  he  rushed  into  the  other  extreme,  the  produce 
too  much  resembling  their  sires.  There  is  now  no 
need  of  running  back  to  the  pure  breeds,  as  there  are 
numerous  Down-Cotswold  rams  to  be  found  varying 
in  size,  color,  and  wool,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the 
breeder,  which  will  meet  the  deficiencies  of  any  half- 
bred  flock."  In  the  same  report,  this  author  con- 
tinues :  "The  Down  Cotswold  sheep  of  this  country 
were  originally  a  cross  between  the  Cotswold  ram 
and  the  Hampshire  Down  ewe,  but  the  cross  having 
been  bred  from  nearly  twenty  years  without  the  in- 
fusion of  any  fresh  blood  has  become  a  distinct 
breed." 

Qualities  desired  by  breeders  of  Oxford  Downs.  — 
The  aim  of  the  early  breeders  seemed  to  be  to  produce 
a  sheep  with  the  weight  of  a  long-wooled  representa- 


120  Sheep-Farming 

tive,  and  the  quality  of  a  Down.  As  Clare  Sewell 
Read  expressed  it,  the  breeders  sought  an  improve- 
ment of  the  Cotswold  at  that  time  because  their 
meat  gave  too  much  to  the  grease  pot  and  too  little 
to  the  table,  the  mutton  at  that  day  selling  for  a 
penny  less  per  pound  than  that  of  the  Downs. 

The  same  writer  faulted  the  Downs  for  the  condi- 
tions of  Oxfordshire,  because  they  are  not  adapted 
for  folding,  as  he  says :  "In  feeding  these  two  sort  of 
sheep  on  dirty  land,  the  Downs  with  short  coats  do 
not  keep  themselves  as  clean  as  the  half-breeds.  The 
Down  is  constantly  moving  about  and  will  amble 
round  a  turnip  and  walk  about  his  fold,  while  his  less 
active  neighbor  will  eat  his  feed  and  quietly  lie  down." 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  object  of  the  breeders  was  to 
produce  a  sheep  adapted  to  the  arable  farming  con- 
ditions of  Oxfordshire  —  a  sheep  that  would  stand 
folding  and  heavy  feeding  and  yet  retain  some  of 
the  quality  of  meat  and  wool  and  hardihood  charac- 
teristic of  the  more  active  Down  breeds. 

Recognition  as  a  breed.  —  The  Royal  Agricultural 
Society,  formed  in  1838,  held  its  first  exhibition  at 
Oxford,  1839,  and  in  the  first  report  of  the  society 
the  only  breeds  recognized  are  the  Leicester  and  the 
Southdown,  there  being  another  class  called  "long- 
wooled,"  in  which  Cotswold  and  Oxfordshires  were 
shown.  The  latter  were  then  considered  long- 
wooled,  and  in  this  class  at  the  exhibition  mentioned, 
their  premiums  were  awarded  to  Oxfordshire  rams 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  121 

and  ewes.  They  were  shown  year  after  year  in  this 
class,  but  the  desire  of  the  breeders  seemed  to  be  to 
get  a  place  among  the  short-wooled  class,  and  finally 
in  1861  the  attempt  was  made  to  show  these  in  the 
class  for  "short-wooled"  sheep  not  Southdown  or 
Shropshire.  The  judges,  however,  excluded  them 
from  competition  in  this  class,  but  the  sheep  were 
commended  so,  that  in  December,  1861,  the  Royal 
Agriculture  Society  Council  gave  them  a  class,  and 
they  assumed  the  status  of  a  breed. 

Characteristics  of  Oxfords.  —  The  scale  of  points 
adopted  by  the  American  Oxford  Down  Record 
Association  is  as  follows  :  — 

Breed  type  of  animals.  —  Form  of  a  good  general  appear- 
ance, made  by  a  well-balanced  conformation,  free 
from  coarseness  in  any  part,  and  showing  good  style 

both  at  rest  and  in  motion 15 

Head  of  moderate  length  and  width  between  the  ears  and 
between  the  eyes,  and  well  covered  with  wool  over 
poll  and  down  to  the  eyes.  Color  of  the  face  an  even 
dark  gray  or  brown,  either  with  or  without  gray  spot 

on  tip  of  nose 6 

When  fully  matured  and  in  good  condition  rams  should 

weigh  250  to  350  pounds,  ewes,  180  to  275  pounds          .       5 
Ears  medium  size,  not  too  thick  and  of  even  brown  or  dark 
gray  color 2 

Legs  short,  strong  in  bone,  flat  and  of  even  dark  gray 
or  brown  color,  placed  squarely  under  the  body  and 
well  apart 2 

Constitution.  —  Large  around  the  heart  and  wide  and  full 

in  the  chest 10 


122  Sheep-Farming 

Movement  must  be  bold  and  vigorous    ....       5 
Eyes  bold,  prominent,  and  bright     .....       4 

Skin  bright  pink  in  color 3 

Neck  strong  and  muscular  in  rams  and  well  set  on  in  both 

sexes 3 

Mvtton  form  and  quality.  —  Wide  and   straight   on   shoul- 
ders, back,  loin,  and  rump,  from  base  of  neck  to  tail      .     15 
Full  shoulders  and  thighs,  well  meated  both  inside  and 

outside 5 

Flanks  well  filled  and  strong  so  as  to  make  the  lower  lines 
of  the  body  as  straight  as  possible,  and  the  side  lines 

straight  and  rather  full 4 

The    whole   carcass   evenly   covered   with   well-marbled 

meat 6 

Wool.  —  Fleece  of  moderate  length,  close,  and  of  even 
quality,  covering  the  whole  carcass  well,  and  free 
from  black  patches  upon  the  body,  neck,  or  head         .     15 

Mutton  qualities.  —  The  Oxford  Down  is  the  heav- 
iest of  any  of  the  Down  breeds  at  maturity,  and 
is  also  larger  in  size.  At  the  Smithfield  show,  they 
have  made  an  excellent  record  in  showing  capacity 
to  make  rapid  gains  when  fed  for  show  purposes. 
In  1884  at  this  show,  the  pen  of  Oxford  lambs  re- 
served for  the  breed  cup  made  .78  pound  per  head 
daily  gain,  which  was  the  highest  up  to  that  time. 
In  1885  the  first  prize  pen  of  lambs  averaged  .75 
pound  per  head  daily  gain,  which  was  also  unusually 
high.  The  pen  of  lambs  showTi  in  1887  averaged 
277  days  old  and  weighed  an  average  of  192  pounds, 
or  an  average  gain  of  .69  pound.  In  1890  two  pens 
of  lambs  each  made  an  average  of    .65  pound   per 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  123 

head  daily,  the  one  pen  being  an  average  of  193 
pounds  at  291  days  old,  and  the  other  197  at  300 
days  old.  In  1891  the  Oxfordshire  won  the  cham- 
pionship of  the  short-wooled  classes,  and  the  same 
pen  won  the  breed  cup.  They  averaged  314  days 
old,  weight  216  pounds,  daily  gain  per  head  .68 
pound.  In  the  lamb  classes  of  1892,  the  best  pen 
of  Oxfords  made  a  daily  gain  of  .67  pound  as  they 
averaged  314  days  old  and  weighed  an  average  of 
211  pounds.  This  pen  was  in  reserve  for  the  cham- 
pionship for  short-wooled  classes.  In  the  slaughter 
test,  they  dressed  the  unusually  high  percentage  of 
67.05.  In  the  yearling  class  the  same  year,  the  best 
gain  reported  was  .43  pound  by  a  pen  weighing  an 
average  of  289  pounds  at  an  average  of  667  days. 
In  1893  the  best  gain  recorded  among  the  lamb 
classes  was  .67,  made  by  a  pen  averaging  215  pounds 
in  weight  at  an  average  age  of  314  days.  The  follow- 
ing year,  1894,  the  daily  gain  per  head  reached  .68 
in  the  instance  of  the  Oxford  lambs,  as  they  weighed 
an  average  of  180  pounds  at  263  days  old. 

From  these  records  it  is  evident  that  the  Oxford 
is  a  good  feeding  sheep,  having  the  ability  of  the  long- 
wooled  breeds  to  attain  heavy  weights  and  yet  retain 
much  of  the  quality  of  frame  so  characteristic  of  the 
other  Downs. 

Fleece  characteristics  of  Oxford  Down. — The  Oxford 
yields  the  heaviest  fleece  of  wool  of  any  of  the  Down 
breeds.     From    10    to    12    pounds    unwashed    wool 


124  Sheep-Farming 

would  fairly  represent  the  average  of  most  flocks, 
though  15  pounds  is  a  common  weight  to  be  reached 
by  individuals.  The  wool  is  4  to  5  inches  long  and 
comparatively  fine  in  fiber  for  the  length.  There  is 
probably  more  variation  in  the  fineness  of  the  fiber 
in  Oxford  Down  fieeces  than  in  any  other  breed,  the 
wool  of  some  representatives  being  remarkably  fine 
in  fiber,while  others  are  nearly  as  coarse  as  some  of 
the  long-wooled  breeds.  The  fleece  is  much  denser 
and  more  compact  than  any  of  the  long-wooled  rep- 
resentatives, as  it  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  other 
Downs  in  that  point. 

Breeding  qualities.  —  The  Oxford  are  prolific  and 
the  ewes  are  good  nurses.  A  lamb  and  a  half  as  an 
average  from  each  ewe  in  the  flock  is  not  uncommon, 
and  this  is  good  testimony  not  only  to  the  prolificacy 
of  the  breed,  but  also  offers  good  evidence  of  the 
qualities  of  the  ewes  as  mothers.  One  of  the  leading 
agricultural  societies  of  the  country  has  offered 
prizes  to  the  shepherd  who  shall  rear  up  to  the  first 
of  May  the  greatest  number  of  lambs  from  the  ewes 
put  to  the  ram.  In  1886  the  winner  reared  198 
lambs  from  130  ewes,  slightly  better  than  one  and 
one  half  lambs  from  each  ewe  in  the  flock  previous  to 
September.  The  next  year  in  the  same  flock,  132 
ewes  gave  a  return  of  213  lambs  reared  by  the  first 
of  May.  There  are  other  instances  of  larger  returns 
than  this  from  smaller  flocks,  but  those  referred  to 
are   satisfactory   evidence  of  prolificacy  and   good 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  125 

nursing  qualities  of  the  Oxfords.  As  a  rule,  the  Ox- 
fords are  reliable  breeders,  though  there  is  perhaps 
more  variation  in  the  results  of  the  mating  than  is 
desirable.  The  breed  is  growing  more  permanent 
in  character  and  type,  and  as  they  become  more 
strongly  developed,  greater  certainty  in  the  reproduc- 
tion of  their  qualities  will  result. 

Adaptability  of  Oxford  Down.  —  Being  a  large 
sheep,  the  Oxford  must  necessarily  have  good  fare, 
and  that  implies  abundant  pasturage  with  the  arable 
land  to  grow  the  fodder  and  grain  crops  that  are  nec- 
essary for  making  heavy  weights.  The  Oxford  is  of 
rugged  constitution  and  able  to  withstand  exposure, 
but  it  does  not  possess  the  activity  and  disposition 
required  of  good  foraging  sheep. 

The  Suffolk 

The  home  of  the  Suffolk  is  in  southeastern  Eng- 
land, chiefly  in  the  shires  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and 
Essex.  The  land  upon  which  and  for  which  the 
breed  has  been  developed  is  somewhat  elevated  and 
exposed  to  dry  easterly  winds.  The  grasses  are 
referred  to  by  Low  as  hard  and  wiry  and  the  sheep 
as  having  to  traverse  larger  areas  in  grazing  than  in 
other  sheep-raising  areas.  The  native  type  evolved 
before  systematic  improvement  began  was  known 
as  the  old  Norfolk  breed.  They  were  long-bodied 
and  muscular,  long  in  limb,  and  carried  their  heads 


126  Sheep-Farming 

erect.  They  were  very  black  in  coloring  of  face  and 
legs,  and  both  sexes  were  horned. 

With  the  improvement  in  agriculture,  the  flocks 
in  this  section  felt  the  influence  of  the  Southdown. 
In  1847  it  was  stated,  "Breeding  sheep  are  chiefly  a 
cross  between  the  Down  and  old  Norfolk."  Other 
breeds  were  used,  but  the  Southdown  is  responsible  for 
such  of  the  improvement  as  can  be  attributed  to 
outside  blood.  For  some  years  the  stock  was  known 
as  Southdown-Norfolk.  In  1859  classes  were  given 
them  at  the  Norfolk  Agricultural  Association's  meet- 
ing, and  they  were  named  Suffolks.  In  1867  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  offered  special  prizes  for 
the  breed,  and  since  1880  it  has  been  included  in  the 
classifications  of  the  shows  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  and  the  Smithfield  Club.  In  recent  years 
the  breed  has  won  a  creditable  record  in  the  slaughter 
tests  at  Smithfield. 

In  size,  the  Suffolk  is  larger  than  the  Shropshire, 
though  smaller  than  the  Hampshire.  Its  striking 
characteristics  are  its  dark  black  face  with  no  wool 
forward  of  the  poll  and  the  bare  black  legs.  It  fre- 
quently stands  rather  high,  an  appearance  sometimes 
accentuated  by  shortness  of  belly  wool.  Wliile  hold- 
ing a  firm  place  in  the  intensive  agriculture  of  its 
native  counties,  it  has  not  obtained  a  very  wide  popu- 
larity in  America.  This  may  be  partly  because 
it  does  not  represent  such  a  combination  of  wool 
and  mutton  as  is  found  in  other  Down  breeds.     The 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  127 

Iambs  are  usually  black  at  birth,  and  the  crop  some- 
times amounts  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  per  cent. 
The  ewes  are  particularly  heavy  milkers. 

The  Dorset  Horn  (Fig.  28,  p.  131) 

The  horned   feature   of   Dorset   rams   and   ewes 
suggests  the  thought  of  their  having  descended  from 
the  same  original  stock  as  the  Merino.     Though  there 
are  few  horned  breeds  of  British  sheep,  the  unim- 
proved stock  was  commonly  horned,  as  shown  in  the 
discussions  of  the  other  breeds.     That  the  Dorset 
is  mainly  distinct  from  other  British  breeds  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  it  was  the  only  white-faced  British 
breed  with  horns.     The  stock  from  which  the  present 
breed  was  derived  seems  to  have  been  native  from 
very  early  times  to  south  and  part  of  central  England, 
particularly  the  counties  of  Somerset  and  Dorset. 
In  relation  to  their  origin,  Marshall,  writing  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  mentions  the  fact  of  a  race  of 
sheep  inhabiting  a  great  part  of  Devonshire,  some  of 
which  were  horned.     He  also  remarked  that  in  the 
different  varieties  of  the  breed  there  were  certain 
individuals   that  have  so  strong  a  resemblance  to 
the  present  breed  of  Dorsetshire  as  to  leave  little 
doubt  of  their  having  a  natural  alhance  and,  as  bear- 
ing out  this  theory,  he  alludes  to  the  fact  of  the  Dor- 
setshire or  "house  lamb"  breed  being  found  in  great 
purity  in  the  vale  of  Exeter  and  that  one  flock  of 


128  Sheep-Farming 

this  description  that  he  found  in  a  state  of  neglect 
was  fast  reverting  to  the  breed  of  the  country. 

This  type  of  sheep  in  its  native  section  seems  to 
have  always  been  noted  for  its  fecundity,  which  is 
characteristic  to-day  as  their  distinguishing  utilitarian 
point.  The  active  improvement  of  the  Dorset  came 
somewhat  later  than  that  of  the  Leicester  and  the 
Southdown  ;  although  rams  of  these  breeds  were  con- 
siderably used  in  Somerset  and  Dorset,  their  use  was 
mainly  for  producing  market  stock  and  the  breed  of  to- 
day shows  no  evidences  of  indebtedness  to  other  breeds. 

"In  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  the  higher  price  of  Southdown  wool  induced 
many  flockmasters  to  keep  that  breed  instead  of  the 
native  Dorset  sheep,  the  breeders  in  West  Dorset, 
claiming  faith  in  their  Dorset  sheep  as  the  breeds 
most  suited  for  their  locality,  instead  of  giving  them 
up,  set  to  work  to  improve  them  by  selection  of  the 
type  desired,  and  at  the  same  time  to  retain  all  their 
good  qualities.  In  this  they  were  successful,  the 
dark  color  on  the  noses  disappeared,  the  horns  ceased 
in  great  measure  to  grow  upwards  and  backwards, 
and  as  a  rule  curled  round  by  the  side  of  the  face, 
without  rising  above  the  head  or  inclining  backwards. 
Their  fore  quarters  became  heavier  and  thicker 
through,  the  good  qualities  of  both  mutton  and  wool 
were  present,  as  well  as  those  noted  characteristics 
of  fecundity,  hardiness,  and  early  maturity."^ 

1  Dorset  Horn  Sheep  Breeders'  Association  Flock  Book,  Vol.  I. 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  129 

The  first  occasion  on  which  separate  classes  were 
provided  by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  for  Dor- 
set sheep  appears  to  have  been  at  the  Battersea 
meeting  in  1862,  when  the  judges  reported  that  "the 
competition  in  these  classes  was  very  limited,  but 
the  animals  exhibited  were  a  very  superior  quality 
and  represented  admirably  the  character  and  excel- 
lence of  the  breed."  They  were  next  exhibited  in 
1865  at  Ply  mouth.  1  Sheep  of  Somerset  and  Dorset 
were  classed  together  as  late  as  1890. 

The  following,  written  in  1892  for  the  first  volume 
of  the  Dorset  Horn  Flock  Book,  gives  an  insight 
into  the  intensive  sheep -farming  of  England  : — 

"The  general  management  of  the  breed  in  Dorset 
is  as  follows :  About  one  to  one  and  one  half 
ewes  are  kept  to  the  acre,  according  to  the  quality 
of  the  land  and  the  amount  of  water,  meadow,  and 
pasture  attached  to  it.  They  require  plenty  of  room 
and  are  generally  allowed  to  roam  the  pasture  in  the 
daytime,  being  brought  to  the  arable  land  at  night. 
They  take  the  ram  fully  two  months  earlier  than  any 
other  breed  and  the  general  lambing  time  for  the  flock 
ewes  is  about  Christmas  and  up  to  the  middle  of 
January.  The  off -going  ewes  are  sold  in  lamb 
in  the  months  of  September  and  October  and  drop 
their  lambs  in  October  and  November,  the  lambs 
being  fattened  for  the  London  market.  The  flock 
ewes  generally  lamb  down  on  the  grass;    they  are 

1  Dorset  Horn  Flock  Book,  Vol.  I. 


130  Sheep-Farming 

then  sent  on  to  roots,  the  lambs  being  allowed  to 
run  forward.  The  lambs  remain  with  the  ewes  till 
some  time  in  May,  when  they  are  weaned  and  then 
go  on  to  good  sound  grass  till  the  fodder  crops  — 
rye,  vetches,  or  trifolium  —  are  fit  to  feed.  They 
remain  on  vetches  till  about  the  end  of  June.  As 
most  of  the  lambs  are  fattened,  they  receive  as  much 
cake  and  corn  as  they  will  eat,  the  object  being  to  fat 
them  off  as  quickly  as  possible.  They  receive  about 
one  fourth  pound  to  one  half  pound  of  cake  or  corn  per 
head  per  day,  wath,  generally,  some  peas.  With  such 
keep  they  would  in  a  good  season  be  fit  to  turn  off 
about  the  first  week  in  April.  The  lambs  born  in 
October  and  November  receive  good  feeding  and  are 
generally  ready  for  the  butcher  when  from  ten  to 
twelve  weeks  old,  when  they  average  from  ten  to  four- 
teen pounds  a  quarter  and  go  to  the  London  market." 
The  breed  of  to-day  is  distinguished  by  the  total 
absence  of  black  markings  and  by  the  horns  in  both 
sexes.  The  best  individuals  are  of  the  same  mutton 
conformation  found  in  other  breeds.  The  most 
common  objectionable  features  are  found  in  the 
shoulders  and  chests.  The  wool  is  shorter  than  in 
most  of  the  Down  breeds,  though  usually  the  fleece 
is  quite  dense  and  compact  and  the  fiber  averages 
well  in  fineness.  There  is  a  tendency  to  lightness  of 
wooling  on  the  belly,  that  gives  an  undue  appearance 
of  lacking  depth  of  body.  The  rate  of  increase  is  a 
valuable  character,  running  as  high  as  one  himdred 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep 


131 


and  eighty  per  cent  of  the  number  of  ewes.  It  is  the 
early  lambing  propensity  that  gives  the  Dorset  its 
greatest  popularity.  Two  lambings  per  year  are  possi- 
ble in  most  instances.  It  is  sometimes  recommended 
that  the  fall-dropped  lambs  be  sired  by  Down  rams 
and  all  marketed,  and  the  spring  crop  be  pure  bred  for 


Fig.  28. — A  Dorset  ram  shown  in  1911  by  Nash  Bros.,  Tipton,  Ind. 

sale  or  replenishing  the  flock.  Many  of  the  friends  of 
the  breed,  however,  advise  that  continued  twice-a-year 
breeding  impairs  the  real  value  of  the  flock.  The  value 
of  lambs  ready  for  market  in  early  winter  makes  their 
production  an  attractive  business  to  flock  masters  who 
have  the  skill  necessary  to  raise  them  and  suitable  mar- 
keting facihties.  The  Dorset  ewe  has  a  pronounced 
propensity  to  come  in  season  and  get  in  lamb  at  a 
much  earlier  date  than  is  common  to  the  other  breeds. 


132  Sheep-Farming 

The  Cheviot  (Fig.  24,  PL  IX) 

The  conditions  for  which  the  Cheviot  breed  has 
been  developed  are  such  as  to  render  it  adapted  to 
sections  much  different  from  those  described  for  the 
breeds  already  discussed.  The  Cheviot  Hills,  from 
which  the  breed  derives  its  name,  are  a  range  of 
beautiful  conical  mountains,  lying  mainly  in  Nor- 
thumberland County,  England,  and  Roxbury  County, 
Scotland.  Only  one  of  the  summits  is  higher  than 
2000  feet,  so,  while  the  breed  is  at  home  in  a  broken 
and  uneven  country,  it  cannot  be  called,  in  the  true 
sense,  a  mountain  breed.  The  vegetation  of  the 
area  is  varied  and  often  extends  to  the  top  of  the 
mountains.  The  crops  produced  on  the  lower  parts 
are  used  in  wintering  the  flocks.  Sheep  are  the  main 
product  and  reliance,  and  more  are  reared  than  can 
be  prepared  for  market  at  home.  There  is  a  wide 
trade  in  stock  to  go  to  richer  farming  sections  for 
fattening.  "Cast"  ewes,  or  five-years-olds,  are 
commonly  sold  into  the  feeding  sections  to  be  bred 
to  rams  of  other  breeds  and  be  prepared  for  market 
at  about  the  same  time  as  their  lambs. 

The  stock  from  which  the  Cheviot  was  developed 
has  existed  in  the  section  for  as  long  a  time  as  is 
covered  by  the  records  of  British  agricultural  affairs. 
As  this  country  was  the  meeting  ground  of  the  contend- 
ing and  marauding  border  chieftains,  the  sheep  were 
little  improved  and  imperfectly  cared  for  until  more 


British  Breeds  of  Sheep  133 

peaceful  days  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  There  is  record  of  use  of  rams  of  Lincoln- 
shire for  improving  the  form  and  fattening  qualities. 
The  wool-bearing  qualities  were  the  subject  of  atten- 
tion in  1790  and  the  following  years.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  their  present  name  came  into  use,  having 
previously  been  "  long  sheep,"  and  such  they  were  by 
contrast  with  the  short  appearing  bodies  of  the  black- 
faced  sheep  in  adjoining  territory.  The  improve- 
ment by  breeding  mainly  from  within  the  stock  itself 
gave  them  a  wide  popularity,  that  was  curtailed  some- 
what by  a  severe  storm  in  1860  that  demonstrated 
that  the  heath  sheep  were  better  able  to  withstand 
extreme  hardship  in  the  most  exposed  sections. 

The  type  of  body  aimed  at  by  breeders  of  Cheviots 
is  the  same  as  desired  in  other  breeds,  and  in  the  range 
of  weights  it  is  comparable  to  the  Shropshire.  Some 
very  strong  backs  and  heavy  twists  are  found  as  well 
as  tendencies  to  light  fronts  and  sharp  shoulders. 
The  distinguishing  characteristics  are  the  shape  and 
expression  of  the  head,  the  general  contour  as  con- 
tributed to  largely  by  the  fleece,  and  the  tempera- 
ment. The  head  is  short  and  broad,  the  nose  strong, 
and  the  eyes  usually  prominent.  It  is  always  white, 
except  for  black  nostrils,  and  covered  with  short, 
hard  hair.  The  long  wool  coming  up  to  the  line  of 
the  ears,  which  are  pointed  and  active,  helps  to  give  an 
appearance  that  is  unusually  attractive. 

The  fleece  is  of  true  middle  wool  type,  but  of  longer 


134  Sheejp'F  arming 

staple  than  in  most  of  the  Down  breeds,  which  length 
and  compactness  upon  a  rather  close-made  body  gives 
a  distinctive  appearance.  In  temperament,  as  might 
be  judged  from  the  appearance  of  the  head  and 
residence  in  the  native  hills,  the  sheep  is  Kvely  and 
quick,  well  adapted  to  an  uneven  country. 

The  mutton-  and  wool-bearing  qualities  and  the 
uniqueness  of  its  appearance  have  brought  the  sheep 
to  many  American  farms  in  which  the  topography 
is  in  no  way  comparable  to  the  Cheviot  Hills. 

The  Black-Faced  Highland 

This  breed  has  won  and  held  the  preference  of 
the  sheep-raisers  in  the  higher  and  more  rugged  lands 
of  Scotland,  beyond  the  habitat  of  the  Che\dot.  It 
is  sometimes  called  the  Black-Faced  Heath  breed, 
as  expressing  its  adaptability  to  the  heath  country 
of  sparser  and  coarser  vegetation.  It  was  also  known 
as  the  "  short  "  breed  in  contrast  to  the  "  long  "  or 
Che\aot  breed.  The  original  stock  appears  to  have 
entered  from  England  about  1780,  but  as  to  its  blood 
lines  prior  to  that  time,  nothing  definite  is  recorded. 
It  has  been  brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  by  care- 
ful breeding.  Comparatively  few  are  fattened  upon 
the  farms  where  bred,  being  sold  into  the  richer  farm- 
ing sections  for  that  purpose.  Their  distinguishing 
features  are  their  short  bodies,  long,  coarse,  and  some- 
times hairy  fleeces,  and  the  black  or  broken  colored 
horned  heads.     The  fleece  is  of  the  long-wool  type. 


Fig.  29.  —  Feeling  the  fullness  of  the  neck.     (Page  141.) 


Fig.  30.  —  With  one  hand  on  top  and  the  other  below,  estimate  the  depth 
of  the  chest.     (Page  141.) 

Plate  XL    Judging  Sheep. 


CHAPTER  V 
FORMATION  OF  A   FLOCK 

It  is  seldom  advisable  for  the  beginner  in  any 
kind  of  stock-breeding  to  begin  with  the  expectation 
of  offering  the  increase  of  the  herd  or  flock  for  sale 
as  breeding  animals. 

There  are  many  considerations  in  preparing  stock 
for  sale  and  in  finding  buyers  that  the  novice  can 
best  leave  until  he  has  become  experienced  in  breed- 
ing and  feeding  the  class  of  stock  he  has  chosen. 
This  idea  is  even  more  applicable  to  sheep  than  to 
other  classes  of  farm  stock. 

Pure-breds  versus  grades  for  foundation  stock,  — 
One  who  is  not  accustomed  to  caring  for  sheep  is 
unlikely  to  produce  many  animals  in  the  first  few 
years  of  the  enterprise  that  will  command  an  en- 
couraging figure  as  breeding  stock.  The  popularity 
of  a  pure-bred  flock  must  always  rest  upon  the  ability 
of  its  individuals  to  impart  qualities  of  economic 
value  to  stock  that  is  handled  for  the  direct  pro- 
duction of  meat  or  wool.  In  order  to  establish  in 
his  flock  the  necessary  qualities  of  actual  commercial 
utility,  the  breeder  cannot  afford  to  miss  the  aid  and 
direction  to  be  secured  through  selling  wool  and  mut- 
ton of  the  first  surplus  stock  in  the  regular  market. 

135 


136  Sheep-Farming 

If  guided  by  what  may  be  so  learned  of  commercial 
requirements  and  what  is  revealed  of  the  difference 
in  value  and  cost  of  the  product  of  individual  mem- 
bers of  the  flock,  the  best  possible  foundation  is 
assured.  Should  the  pure-bred  business  seem  at- 
tractive at  a  later  time,  it  may  be  entered  in  a  very 
favorable  way.  This,  however,  assumes  that  the 
initial  stock  was  pure  bred  and  that  the  stock  re- 
tained for  breeders  has  been  kept  registered. 

If  one  is  unwilling  at  the  outset  to  risk  investing 
the  amount  necessary  to  procure  pure-bred  stock, 
equally  valuable  experience  may  be  obtained  with 
high-grade  females  and  pure-bred  males.  Such 
stock  may  also  furnish  a  good  foundation  for  a 
flock  that  it  is  intended  to  maintain  for  commercial 
purposes  only.  In  any  case,  the  main  point  to  be 
considered  is  the  actual  indi\^dual  merit  of  the 
animals  themselves  rather  than  the  fact  of  their 
eligibility  to  registration. 

A  novice  cannot  afford  to  expend  his  time  and 
study  and  bestow  his  crops  upon  animals  that  are 
not  bred  to  respond  to  skillful  care  and  feeding.  In- 
dividually, good  sheep  are  much  more  likely  to  be 
found  in  pure-bred  flocks  than  in  grade  flocks,  but 
they  may  be  secured  from  the  latter.  If  so,  and  they 
have  a  sufficient  number  of  crosses  in  them  to  guaran- 
tee the  transmission  of  their  excellence,  they  are 
good  property.  If  such  were  procured  by  a  person 
who  should   decide  in  a  few  years  to  handle  pure- 


Formation  of  a  Flock  137 

breds,  he  would  be  under  the  necessity  of  purchasing 
new  stock  upon  which  to  found  the  pure-bred 
flock. 

Numbers  are  wholly  subordinate  to  merit  in  the 
initial  stock.  On  an  average-sized  farm  where  other 
stock  is  kept,  a  dozen  ewes  or  even  half  a  dozen  will 
prove  satisfactory  as  the  start  for  a  flock.  A  larger 
number  has  the  advantage  with  some  persons  of 
insuring  interest  and  the  devotion  of  time  and  care 
that  might  not  be  afforded  a  smaller  and  seemingly 
less  significant  number.  If  a  larger  number  of  the 
right  kind  can  be  secured,  it  is  well  to  do  so,  but 
there  can  be  no  true  business  economy  in  sacrificing 
merit  to  get  numbers. 

Selecting  foundation  stock.  —  In  considering  that 
sheep  are  to  be  kept  upon  the  farm,  it  is  assumed  that 
the  place  they  are  to  occupy  has  been  decided  upon. 
While  sheep  have  a  value  as  gleaners  and  scavengers, 
the  keeping  of  them  cannot  be  profitable  unless  they 
are  so  cared  for  as  to  permit  the  exercise  of  their 
peculiar  advantage  in  economy  of  production.  The 
keeping  of  sheep  having  been  decided  upon,  the  mat- 
ter next  in  order  and  coming  before  the  choice  of  a 
breed  is  the  plan  of  handling.  The  kind  of  pasture, 
the  extent  of  use  of  forage  crops,  the  age  to  market, 
are  all  matters  that  need  to  be  settled  for  the  home 
conditions  and  market  before  coming  to  a  decision 
as  to  the  kind  of  sheep  likely  to  prove  most  satis- 
factory. 


138  Sheep-Farming 

The  Merino  types  and  the  Rambouillet  have  ad- 
vantages over  the  British  breeds  in  special  resistance 
to  the  effects  of  close  herding  and  in  being  somewhat 
less  susceptible  to  injury  from  internal  parasites. 
The  fine  wool  at  times  commands  high  prices. 
They  adapt  themselves  to  a  wide  variety  of  soil 
conditions.  Wool  is  a  staple  product  and  easily 
and  safely  held. 

Depending  solely  upon  wool  to  repay  expense 
of  keeping  and  furnish  revenue  from  land  is  a  safe 
venture  in  few  if  any  parts  of  the  United  States. 
Some  breeders  will  doubtless  continue  to  raise  the 
heavy-folded  and  light-bodied  types  for  use  in  breed- 
ing for  more  commercial  types,  but  economical  farm 
practice  must  place  some  reliance  on  the  mutton  value 
of  the  increase  and  old  breeding-stock.  If  wool 
is  to  be  made  the  first  consideration  and  mutton  a 
secondary  one,  profitable  types  can  be  found  in  the 
Delaine  and  Rambouillet  breeds. 

Where  meat -production  is  paramount,  the  choice 
lies  between  the  British  long-wool  and  middle-wool 
groups  of  breeds.  The  former  come  to  market 
conditions  at  rather  heavier  weights  than  are  most 
popular  in  the  meat  trade.  The  long- wool  breeds 
grow  rapidly  and,  when  grown,  fatten  easily.  Their 
wool  is  in  special  demand  in  some  years,  and  their 
long  breeding  under  the  conditions  described  gives 
them  inherent  qualities  that  adapt  them  to  corre- 
sponding conditions  elsewhere. 


Fig.  31.  —  Notice  the  heart  girth  by  the  width  between  the  hands. 


Fig.  32.  — With  the  hand  perfectly  flat  note  the  levehiess  of  the  back,  its 
firmness  and  covering.     (Pages  141,  142.) 


Plate  XII.    Judging  Sheep. 


Fig.  33.  —  Taking  the  width  of  loin,  also  note  thickness.     (Page  142.) 


Fig.  34.  —  Noting  the  degree  to  which  the  width  of  body  is  carried  to  the 
end.     (Page  142.) 


Plate  XIII.    Judging  Sheep. 


Formation  of  a  Flock  139 

The  middle-wool  breeds  are  so  numerous  and  spring 
from  such  a  variety  of  conditions  and  systems  of 
handling  that  for  any  farm  that  is  not  so  low  as  to 
limit  the  choice  to  the  long- wools,  there  can  be  found 
a  breed  already  improved  and  adapted  to  its  peculiar- 
ities. It  is  a  mistake  to  expect  good  results  from 
sheep  of  any  breed  when  placed  in  an  environment 
materially  different  from  that  of  the  native  home  of 
the  breed  or  expect  them  to  mature  earlier  or  later 
or  at  different  weights  than  were  common  to  their 
ancestors. 

Breed  type.  —  It  is  not  points  of  conformation  that 
adapt  a  sheep  of  a  particular  breed  to  specific  con- 
ditions, though  size  alone  may  indicate  rate  of 
growth  and  maturity.  All  the  mutton  breeds  have 
been  bred  according  to  the  same  general  standard ; 
some  breeds  approach  the  ideal  more  uniformly 
and  more  closely  than  others.  In  the  breeds  that 
are  less  uniformly  close  to  the  mutton  ideal,  there  is 
always  some  feature  of  ability  to  respond  to  certain 
conditions  and  methods  of  handling  that  makes 
them  most  economical  in  the  sections  in  which  they 
have  been  developed.  While  breeding  for  a  valuable 
carcass  and  adaptability,  the  improvers  of  the  breeds 
retained  the  features  of  general  form,  shape  of  head, 
character  of  ear,  facial  coloring  and  wooling  of  face 
or  the  absence  of  it,  largely  as  they  were  found  in 
the  original  stock  with  which  the  improvement  be- 
gan.    These   distinguishing  features   have  received 


140  Sheep-Farming 

the  attention  of  the  breeders  along  with  form,  fleece, 
and  feeding  capacity.  They  serve  to  give  uniformity 
in  the  appearance  of  the  flock  and  to  set  it  apart 
from  other  breeds.  The  latter  purpose  is  analogous 
to  a  "trade-mark."  The  possession  of  the  special 
breed  points  is  a  guarantee  that  the  animal  comes 
from  stock  the  breeding  of  which  has  been  directed 
by  the  leading  men  connected  with  the  breed. 
Breed  type,  therefore,  aside  from  its  own  secondary 
value,  argues  for  the  animal  exhibiting  it,  the  pos- 
session of  those  inherent  habits  and  special  qualities 
that  give  the  breed  its  special  field  of  usefulness. 
The  foregoing  explains  the  breeder's  great  apprecia- 
tion of  type,  an  attitude  which  the  novice  is  sometimes 
inclined  to  consider  as  a  matter  more  of  fancy  than 
of  utility.  Type  cannot  be  lost  sight  of  by  the  sheep- 
raiser  who  would  maintain  a  flock  with  uniformity 
in  character,  manner  of  development  and  adaptability, 
whether  it  is  the  purpose  to  dispose  of  the  surplus 
as  breeders  or  to  finish  them  for  market. 

The  presence  of  breed  type  does  not  remove  the 
necessity  of  making  sure  that  the  animals  selected 
have  also  the  individual  points  of  build  that  give 
them  the  greatest  commercial  value  and  that  indicate 
the  greatest  vigor  and  thrift.  In  fine- wool  sheep, 
the  fleece  is  the  main  point  to  be  studied.  After 
studying  the  fleece,  the  vigor  and  stamina  may  be 
judged  by  the  chest  capacity  and  the  expression  of 
the  face  and  the  carriage  and  boldness  of  movement. 


Formation  of  a  Flock  141 

Judging  sheep.  —  In  the  mutton  breeds,  the  same 
points  are  relied  upon,  but  it  is  also  necessary,  unless 
the  sheep  is  newly  shorn,  to  use  the  hands  to  find  out 
just  how  the  animal  is  built. 

In  judging  sheep,  it  is  advisable  to  adopt  a  certain 
course  of  procedure,  so  that  nothing  may  be  missed, 
and  each  motion  be  made  to  disclose  something  in 
regard  to  the  merit  or  demerit  of  a  sheep.  As  in 
judging  all  other  classes  of  stock,  a  system  of  exami- 
nation should  be  adopted  and  very  closely  adhered  to. 
The  best  course  to  follow,  perhaps,  is  to  begin  at  the 
head.  With  finger  and  thumb  remove  the  lower 
lip  so  that  the  teeth  may  be  seen.  Then,  with  the  hand 
under  the  jaw,  look  carefully  over  the  head,  seeing 
that  the  eyes  are  all  right,  the  head  of  good  shape, 
no  appearance  of  horns  in  those  breeds  that  are 
hornless,  while  in  those  with  horns  note  that  the  latter 
spring  clear  from  the  head.  Then  pass  to  the  neck, 
feeling  with  the  hands  the  course  of  the  neck,  and 
in  that  way  determine  the  length  of  it,  the  thickness 
of  it,  and  the  way  it  swells  to  meet  the  shoulder 
at  the  shoulder  vein.  (See  Fig.  29.)  Then  pass  down 
to  the  brisket,  putting  one  hand  on  the  floor  of  the 
chest  and  the  other  at  the  top  of  the  shoulder,  and 
in  this  way  form  an  idea  as  to  depth  of  the  sheep 
through  these  parts.  (See  Fig.  30.)  Then  pass  to 
the  shoulder,  noticing  how  it  is  covered  with  flesh, 
and  up  to  the  top,  also  taking  the  girth  or  the  spring 
of  the  ribs  of  the  sheep.     (See  Fig.  31.)     From  the 


142  Sheep-Farming 

top  of  the  shoulder,  using  one  hand,  follow  the  line 
of  the  back  to  the  end  of  the  body.  (See  Fig.  32.) 
By  carefully  handling  these  parts,  the  fleshiness  of 
the  sheep  or  the  way  the  ribs  are  covered  and  the 
straightness  of  the  back  are  determined,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  spring  of  the  ribs  is  made  apparent. 
The  width  of  the  loin  should  then  be  taken,  and  the 
covering  and  the  thickness  of  it  should  also  be  noticed. 
(See  Fig.  33.)  The  width  at  the  hips  should  then  be 
observed,  and  turning  to  one  side  and  using  the  two 
hands,  the  length  from  the  hip  to  the  end  of  the  hind 
quarter  should  be  made  apparent  between  the  two 
hands.  Then  the  way  the  hind  quarter  is  carried 
back  and  the  fullness  should  also  be  examined. 
(See  Fig.  34.)  Following  down  towards  the  leg,  the 
development  of  the  thigh  on  the  outside  requires 
examination.  And  then  with  the  hand  the  quarters 
or  the  twist  between  the  legs  should  be  firmly  felt. 
(See  Fig.  35.)  In  Figure  36,  the  proper  method  of 
opening  the  fleece  is  shown. 

Deception  in  form  due  to  trimming.  —  In  this  way, 
the  sheep  has  been  thoroughly  examined  as  to  form, 
but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  hand  should  be 
thoroughly  relied  on  to  detect  all  discrepancies  in 
form,  and  unless  the  sheep  is  carefully  handled  the 
examiner  is  very  likely  to  be  deceived.  The  wool 
of  all  show  sheep  and  fat  stock  is  always  trimmed, 
and  the  trimmer  possessing  skill  can  make  a  sheep 
of  any  desired  form,  providing  the  wool  is  long  enough 


Formation  of  a  Flock  143 

and  the  sheep  approaches  somewhat  towards  the 
form  that  is  being  imitated. 

Quality.  —  After  the  form  of  the  sheep  has  been 
carefully  gone  over,  the  quality  should  be  noted. 
The  cleanness  of  the  bone,  the  apparent  strength  of 
it,  and  the  nature  of  the  hair  that  covers  the  face 
and  legs  should  be  noted.  These  are  important 
in  either  breeding  sheep  or  fat  sheep.  It  is,  perhaps, 
most  valuable  from  the  butcher's  standpoint,  be- 
cause the  waste  is  less  from  a  sheep  of  good  quality 
than  it  is  from  one  that  is  inferior,  but  sheep  of  the 
best  quality  will  not  dress  much  over  fifty  per  cent  of 
their  live  weight. 

The  ram.  —  Aside  from  the  breed  type,  the  ram 
should  show  masculinity  in  many  features.  In 
those  breeds  that  have  horns,  the  latter  should 
spring  strong  from  the  head  and  turn  free  from  the 
face.  In  all  rams,  the  face  should  be  broad  between 
the  eyes,  somewhat  short,  with  a  strong  nose.  The 
crest  or  scrag  should  be  thick  and  rising  and  the  neck 
full.  A  point  deserving  emphasis  is  the  depth  of 
the  chest.  The  body  should  sink  deep  between  the 
fore  legs,  and  the  ribs  back  of  the  shoulder  should  be 
deep  and  round,  making  the  girth  large  and  the 
brisket  prominent  and  wide,  —  two  features  that  are 
indicative  of  a  strong  constitution.  A  live  fleece 
—  that  is,  one  that  is  springy  and  not  dead  to  the 
touch,  and  especially  a  dense,  thick  covering  of  belly 
wool  — is    also   indicative  of  vigor   or  constitution. 


144  Sheep-Farming 

For  the  same  reason,  in  those  breeds  that  are  wooled 
about  the  head,  the  more  complete  and  dense  this 
covering  is,  the  better  it  is  Hked.  The  legs  of  the 
ram  should  be  straight  and  strong  and  short.  In 
movement  the  ram  should  be  bold  and  active. 
This  is  often  influenced  by  the  condition.  A  ram 
should  never  be  so  heavy  in  flesh  as  to  be  useless 
for  service,  as  is  too  often  the  case  in  the  show  ring. 
The  flesh  should  be  even  and  firm  and  not  gathered 
in  masses  or  rolls  at  any  part  of  the  body.  It  is 
very  apt  to  gather  at  the  fore  flank,  leaving  the 
back  bare  or  raw.  Excessive  condition  is  likely  to 
make  the  ram  unwieldy  in  action  or  result  in  broken- 
down  pasterns,  which  usually  render  a  ram  useless 
for  breeding  purposes. 

The  ewe.  —  The  ewe  should  be  rather  long  in  the 
face,  with  fine  features.  The  neck  should  be  slender 
and  without  any  of  the  thickness  noticeable  in  the 
ram.  The  body  should  be  deep,  round  ribbed,  and 
specially  long  so  as  to  provide  room  for  the  growling 
lamb.  The  type  of  the  good  milking  ewe  verges 
strongly  towards  that  which  is  typical  of  the  good 
dairy  cow.  The  ewe  that  milks  well,  and  conse- 
quently rears  early  maturing  lambs,  tends  towards 
the  wedge  shape,  deep  in  the  chest,  large  bodied,  and 
wide  across  the  loins  and  the  hips.  The  condition 
of  the  ewe  should  not  be  such  as  to  impair  her  breed- 
ing qualities.  Excessive  fatness,  as  a  rule,  is  in  this 
way  injurious.     The  flesh  should  be  evenly  distrib- 


Formation  of  a  Flock  145 

uted  and  not  gathered  in  bunches  about  the  tail 
head,  and  it  should  be  firm  and  not  flabby.  A  good 
way  to  select  breeding  stock  is  to  study  type  and 
fleece  first  and  then  the  bodies  after  shearing.  Such 
a  plan  is  not  often  practicable,  but  when  it  can  be 
followed,  it  is  most  safe  and  instructive. 

Need  of  uniformity  in  ewe  flock.  —  Ewes  that  are 
of  the  right  size  and  general  build  and  true  to  the 
features  of  their  breeds,  and  at  the  same  time  of  a 
high  degree  of  excellence  in  fleece  and  form,  are  not 
to  be  had  at  ordinary  prices.  Since  something  must 
be  sacrificed,  it  had  better  be  points  of  conformation 
than  type.  With  all  the  ewes  of  the  same  general 
build  and  type,  it  remains  to  so  breed  and  select  as 
to  overcome  the  individual  defects.  Ewes  of  the 
blocky,  compact,  heavily  muscled  kind,  coming  from 
prolific  vigorous  stock  of  the  same  kind,  are  sure  to 
prove  satisfactory  under  fair  treatment.  Some  de- 
fects of  form  may  impair  their  market  value,  but 
such  are  less  serious  and  much  more  readily  corrected 
than  is  a  variety  of  type.  It  is  easily  possible 
within  any  one  of  the  breeds  to  find  a  range  of  type 
running  from  the  kind  that  get  ready  for  market  at 
an  early  age  to  those  much  larger  that  grow  through 
a  longer  period  and  fatten  at  greater  weight,  but 
much  later.  Each  may  be  profitable  under  its  own 
conditions,  but  cannot  be  so  in  the  same  flock  at  the 
same  time.  In  such  a  mixed  flock,  the  lambs  cannot 
all  be  marketed  at  once,  or  if  they  are,  their  lack  of 


146  Sheep-Farming 

uniformity  in  appearance,  size,  and  condition  lowers 
their  value  greatly.  If,  for  any  reason,  the  owner 
allows  part  of  his  ewes  to  be  of  a  type  different  from 
that  decided  upon  at  the  outset,  he  has  made  future 
progress  both  difficult  and  unnecessarily  expensive. 
Good  individual  ewes  of  a  different  sort  may  seem 
well  worth  the  price  asked  for  them,  but  if  they  are 
not  of  the  same  sort  as  the  rest  of  the  flock,  one  of 
two  undesirable  things  is  inevitable.  To  bring  the 
Iambs  of  the  off-type  ewes  to  the  standard  set,  a 
special  ram  must  be  used,  or  if  this  is  not  done,  part 
of  the  lambs  will  be  less  economical  gainers  than  the 
others  and  thus  raise  the  cost  of  production,  while 
the  diversity  of  appearance  and  character  lowers  the 
selling  value.  The  breeder  will  find  enough  to 
occupy  him  in  maintaining  and  advancing  the  stand- 
ard of  his  flock  and  breeding  out  individual  defects 
without  at  the  same  time  assuming  the  task  of 
bringing  in  and  fixing  the  correct  type  in  one  part 
of  the  flock. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF   THE  FLOCK 

Having  secured  his  foundation  ewes,  it  is  thence- 
forth the  aim  of  the  owner  to  enlarge  the  flock  by  the 
retention  of  the  females  in  the  increase.  Within 
five  or  six  years  at  the  most,  the  original  stock  will 
have  been  disposed  of  as  no  longer  capable  of  breed- 
ing. The  ewe  flock  will  then  consist  entirely  of 
animals  bred  by  the  owner.  Real  success  demands 
that  there  be  a  continuous  improvement  in  uni- 
formity and  in  average  individual  merit.  At  the 
best,  the  foundation  ewes  will  have  some  points 
susceptible  of  improvement,  or  it  may  become  ap- 
parent that  a  change  in  some  feature  would  add  to 
the  profit  from  keeping  them.  In  the  correction 
of  defects  and  effecting  of  improvement,  the  flock 
owner  has  three  opportunities,  all  of  which  he  must 
utilize  in  advancing  toward  his  ideal  of  a  flock  of 
maximum  efficiency  for  his  purposes.  The  flrst 
of  these  is  in  the  selection  of  rams.  The  second 
opportunity  is  in  the  culling  of  the  ewes,  and  the 
third  is  in  the  growing  and  developing  of  the  lambs. 

Selection  of  rams.  —  Truest  economy  calls  for  the 
highest  degree  of  excellence  in  the  ram.  Needless 
to  say,  he  should  strongly  represent  the  type  that  is 

147 


1^ 


Sheep-Farming 


j^|!to  AJ^aracterize   the   flock   and   should   exhibit   the 

J^    ^5bnounced   individuaHty   and   vigor   that   indicate 

*  prepotency   or  the  power  to   impress   his   quaHties 

>  upon  his  get.  This  much  assures  the  maintenance 
of  what  has  been  secured  in  the  ewes.  In  addition, 
the  sire  must  have  marked  strength  in  the  main 
weak  points  of  the  ewes.  While  it  may  at  times  be 
necessary  to  use  ewes  that  are  not  pure  bred,  the 
ram  must  be  eligible  to  record.  Some  well-bred 
but  unrecorded  rams  may  be  better  breeders  than 
some  that  are  recorded.  The  advantage  of  eligi- 
bility to  record  is  not  in  the  fact  of  the  registration 
of  the  sire  and  dam,  but  in  the  fact  that  registration 
makes  it  possible  to  know  from  what  kind  of  stock 
the  ram  is  bred.  A  ram  with  the  character  described 
is  not  likely  to  come  from  substandard  parents  or 
grandparents,  but  theory  and  experience  both  prove 
the  wisdom  of  knowing  the  pedigree  or  ancestry  of 
a  breeding  animal  whether  pure  bred  or  grade.  The 
first  thing  to  consider  in  a  pedigree  of  a  breeding 
ram  or  ewe  is  the  breeding  records  of  the  sire  and 
dam.  They  should  be  judged  by  the  uniformity 
and  merit  of  their  other  offspring.  The  son  of  a 
young  ewe  may  prove  successful  as  a  sire,  but  the 
risk  of  failure  is  much  less  in  selecting  the  offspring 
of  a  ewe  known  to  have  produced  other  lambs  that 
are  robust,  well  made,  and  true  to  type.  The  breed- 
ing qualities  of  the  ram's  sire  may  be  judged  by  a 
single  crop  of  lambs,  though  it  is  still  safer  if  there 


The  Improvement  of  the  Flock  149 

are  older  sheep  to  represent  him  and  to  show  the 
breeder's  faith  in  him.  If  the  parents  pass  the  test 
of  inspection  of  their  other  offspring,  this  should  be 
assurance  as  to  their  similarity  in  type.  Their 
individual  points  cannot  be  ignored,  but  sheep  that 
are  old  enough  to  have  the  offspring  of  several  years 
to  speak  for  them  are  not  likely  to  be  very  attractive 
in  appearance.  The  first  parents  constitute  the  most 
important  part  of  a  pedigree.  Failure  of  parents  to 
stand  such  a  test  cannot  be  atoned  for  by  the  excel- 
lence of  the  grandparents.  This  is  highly  desirable, 
but  must  be  looked  upon  as  added  assurance  of 
the  worth  of  the  parents  rather  than  as  an  excuse 
for  their  shortcomings.  If  grandparents  and  great- 
grandparents  also  are  known  to  have  been  good 
breeders,  the  descendant  of  such  a  line  has  still  less 
chance  of  being  a  poor  breeder.  As  the  number 
of  generations  of  careful  weeding  out  of  all  sub- 
standard animals  is  added  to,  there  is  an  increasing 
degree  of  purity  of  the  blood  and  freedom  from  the 
possible  appearance  of  inferior  features.  The  chief 
real  reason  for  the  popularity  of  imported  sheep  is 
in  the  fact  that  they  usually  come  from  flocks  that 
have  been  bred  with  the  greatest  care  for  so  many 
generations  that  the  blood  is  more  nearly  pure  to 
good  tendencies  and  therefore  stronger  in  transmis- 
sion than  is  the  case  with  animals  from  flocks  that 
have  not  been  bred  for  a  long  time  according  to  an 
uninterrupted  plan. 


150  Sheep- Farming 

Such  a  plan  of  procedure  in  selecting  a  sire  involves 
time  and  study  and  commonly  some  expense.  Since, 
however,  it  is  the  only  opportunity  to  influence  the 
inheritance  of  the  lambs  of  the  ewes  that  are  to  be 
bred,  the  effort  is  a  necessary  one.  The  owner's 
skill  in  breeding  determines  the  success  of  the  stock- 
raising  venture,  and  the  selection  of  sires  offers  the 
main  opportunity  for  the  investment  of  time  and 
skill. 

Study  of  pedigrees,  —  It  is  not  only  practical,  but 
imperative,  to  study  pedigrees  in  the  way  that  has 
been  discussed.  In  some  cases,  an  animal  that  has 
defects  but  is  backed  up  by  parents  and  grand- 
parents that  stand  the  test  may  be  more  dependable 
than  another  that  is  superior  individually  but  not 
vouched  for  by  his  forbears.  No  rule  can  be  laid 
down  to  guide  in  a  choice  between  individual  merit 
and  merit  in  ancestry.  There  is  great  danger  of 
allowing  esteem  for  an  animal  to  blind  one  to  the 
defects  of  that  animal's  offspring.  A  safe  way  is 
to  investigate  the  ancestry  of  only  those  animals 
that  first  command  attention  by  their  own  merit. 

Pedigree  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "a  promise 
but  not  a  guarantee  of  performance."  Occasionally 
there  is  an  opportunity  to  procure  sires  that  have 
produced  offspring  of  uniformly  high  character. 
This  is  a  guarantee  of  performance,  and  such  a  sire 
is  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  most  promising 
untested  one.     Even  with  a  proven  sire,  however,  it 


The  Improvement  of  the  Flock  151 

is  necessary  to  consider  the  blood  lines  and  type  of 
the  ewes  to  which  he  has  been  bred  in  comparison 
with  those  of  the  flock  in  which  it  is  proposed  to 
use  him.  If  he  had  made  a  strong  impress  for  good 
upon  his  get  from  a  large  number  of  ewes  or  even 
a  smaller  number  of  varied  strains,  it  would  indicate 
strong  prepotency.  Fortunate  "niches"  come  from 
some  matings  that  are  not  duplicated  when  either 
parent  is  paired  with  a  new  mate.  Even  with  the 
greatest  effort,  one  cannot  be  certain  he  is  procuring 
a  great  sire.  With  reasonable  care,  even  in  choos- 
ing an  untried  animal,  he  can  avoid  an  objectionable 
one.  Fortuitous  niches  and  unusual  strong  sires 
are  procured  by  continually  aiming  for  the  best  to 
be  had,  and  the  men  who  own  them  always  owe  their 
good  fortune  to  good  judgment  and  careful  study 
more  than  to  chance  or  extraordinary  financial 
resources. 

Testing  rams.  —  In  the  larger  pure-bred  flocks 
where  breeding  is  most  carefully  done,  a  young  ram 
is  always  tested  before  being  used  extensively.  Of 
course,  only  those  of  best  individuality  and  parentage 
are  considered  as  sires,  but  they  are  required  to 
demonstrate  their  prepotency  before  receiving  an 
opportunity  to  impress  any  great  number  of  offspring. 
A  practical  way  of  making  such  a  test  is  to  breed  the 
ram  to  five  or  six  ewes  or  possibly  a  smaller  number 
of  old  ewes  whose  breeding  record  is  known  well 
enough  to  allow  a  clear  estimate  of  the  ram's  influ- 


152  Sheep-Farming 

ence  when  the  lambs  arrive.  The  greatest  concern 
as  to  the  success  of  a  sire  is  occasioned  in  selecting 
the  successor  to  one  that  has  worked  a  marked 
improvement  in  the  flock,  and  the  new  one  should 
be  procured  and  tested  before  the  older  one  is  dis- 
posed of.  One  advantage  of  a  large  flock  is  that 
when  once  a  ram  is  found  to  mate  well  with  the  ewes, 
he  can  be  retained  for  use  with  the  same  ewes  so 
long  as  both  remain  useful,  and  further  experiment 
with  that  part  of  the  flock  is  unnecessary,  and  the 
superiority  of  the  lambs  of  such  older  ewes  can  be 
relied  upon. 

If  the  ram  selected  for  the  young  ewes  sired  by  the 
older  one  proves  unsatisfactory,  a  loss  is  occasioned, 
but  by  no  means  so  great  a  loss  as  there  would  have 
been  if  all  the  lambs  of  that  year's  crop  were  by  the 
new  sire.  In  this  way,  the  owner  of  a  large  flock  has 
an  advantage  in  being  able  to  breed  his  ewes  to  the 
same  ram  year  after  year.  He  can  try  them  with 
another  according  as  the  character  of  the  previous 
lambs  or  the  individual  characters  of  the  ewes  and 
rams  suggest.  Even  in  a  flock  of  less  than  forty 
ewes,  the  extra  trouble  of  keeping  an  extra  ram  and 
of  doing  the  fall  mating  in  two  groups  would  often 
be  repaid  many  times  over  by  the  greater  improve- 
ment secured.  Sheep-raising  is  not  likely  to  prove 
to  be  interesting  or  remunerative  unless  progress 
is  being  made.  Progress  is  a  dividend  upon  what 
has  been  put  into  the  venture.     In  sheep-breeding. 


The  Improvement  of  the  Flock  153 

the  most  important  part  of  the  investment  is  the 
study  and  judgment  that  are  brought  to  bear  in 
making  the  matings.  No  lavish  expenditures  of 
money  for  fancy  equipment  or  for  breeding  animals 
not  adapted  to  one  another  or  to  their  conditions 
can  ever  give  results  if  skill  in  mating  and  developing 
is  lacking.  On  the  other  hand,  the  careful  breeder 
who  selects  wisely,  holds  closely  to  his  type,  and 
allows  his  sheep  full  opportunity  to  develop  up  to 
the  limit  of  their  inheritance  will  succeed  with  the 
use  of  a  very  limited  amount  of  capital. 

In-breeding  and  line-breeding.  —  The  question  of 
mating  ewes  to  rams  that  are  related  to  them  some- 
times becomes  a  very  practical  one.  Good  breeders 
disagree  as  to  the  advisability  of  the  practice.  Its 
effects  are  sometimes  notably  good  and  at  other  times 
as  plainly  bad.  The  reason  for  the  difference  in 
results  is  manifestly  due  to  the  particular  conditions, 
as  the  forces  governing  inheritance  are  always  the 
same. 

Robert  Bakewell's  rule  of  breeding  was  to  breed 
"the  best  to  the  best."  He  had  no  contemporaries 
and  was  limited  to  his  own  flock  for  the  selection  of 
rams.  His  success  has  been  referred  to  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  Leicester  breed.  In  the  Southdown 
improvement,  John  Ellman  also  mated  related  ani- 
mals, and  owners  of  some  of  the  prominent  flocks  of 
the  present  day  prefer  that  part  of  the  blood  of  the 
ram  should  be  the  same  as  a  part  of  the  ewe's  blood. 


154  Sheep-Farming 

Some  of  the  best  American  fine-wool  flocks  are  line- 
bred.  In  other  cases  in  which  the  rams  have  been 
selected  from  within  the  flock  for  a  number  of  gener- 
ations, there  has  been  a  most  serious  decrease  in 
size  and  robustness,  the  latter  sometimes  especially 
noticeable  in  young  lambs. 

Before  attempting  to  explain  the  varied  results 
from  close  matings,  the  two  terms  in  common  use, 
in-breeding  and  line-breeding,  may  be  considered. 
In-breeding  and  line-breeding  are  essentially  the 
same.  The  distinction  between  them  is  not  one  of 
principle,  but  of  degree.  There  is  no  agreed  line  of 
demarcation  between  them,  and  what  some  persons 
call  in-breeding  may  be  referred  to  by  others  as 
line-breeding.  Animals  that  are  in-bred  have 
parents  that  are  related  much  more  closely  than  are 
the  parents  of  line-bred  animals.  The  mating  of 
sons  and  daughters  of  the  same  ram  or  of  the  same 
ewe  is  in-breeding.  A  close  mating  such  as  that  of 
sire  to  daughter  or  son  to  dam  would  be  a  close  form 
of  in-breeding.  Any  mating  less  close  than  that  of 
being  half  brother  and  sister  would  be  more  prop- 
erly spoken  of  as  line-breeding.  Line-breeding,  or 
breeding  in  line,  implies  a  succession  of  sires  that 
trace  their  descent  to  a  common  animal  not  too  far 
removed. 

The  explanation  of  line-breeding  is  not  to  be 
found  in  the  fact  of  the  relationship  of  the  parents. 
Because  such  parents  have  a  common  near-by  ances- 


■-.€ 


Fig.  35.  —  Feeling  the  development  in  the  leg  of  mutton.     (Page  142.) 


Fig.  36.  —  Manner  and  place  of  opening  fleece  to  see  finest  quality  of 
wool.     (Page  142.) 


Plate  XIV.    Judging  Sheep. 


The  Improvement  of  the  Flock  155 

tor,  they  are  likely  to  hold  in  common  the  charac- 
teristics of  that  common  ancestor.  These  common 
characters  may  be  good  ones  or  poor,  or  they  may 
comprise  both.  The  principle  of  the  matter  has  been 
tersely  stated  in  these  words:  "The  injury  from 
line-breeding  comes  not  because  of  kinship  in  blood, 
but  because  of  kinship  in  defect."  The  concentra- 
tion of  the  blood  of  a  single  animal  that  is  the 
result  of  line-breeding  serves  to  concentrate  and 
perpetuate  the  characters  of  that  animal.  The 
result  is  not  from  the  fact  that  the  parents  are 
related.  No  new  character  or  qualities  are  brought 
about,  but  simply  extra  likelihood  of  resemblance 
to  the  animal  whose  blood  is  concentrated.  Some 
of  the  successful  breeders  who  do  not  favor  the 
practice  of  concentrating  the  blood  prefer  to  con- 
centrate the  type.  They  use  a  succession  of  sires 
that  are  no  blood  relation  but  which  are  of  the  same 
type  and  individual  qualities.  When  it  can  be  done, 
concentration  of  type  serves  as  well  to  secure  the 
uniformity  and  prepotency  that  results  from  in- 
breeding or  line-breeding.  It  is  doubtful,  however, 
whether  the  effect  is  quite  so  pronounced  when  a  num- 
ber of  similar  animals  are  used  as  when  the  same  indi- 
vidual appears  a  number  of  times  in  the  pedigree. 

Many  of  the  early  improvers  and  founders  of  the 
breeds  worked  under  conditions  that  afforded  no 
field  for  the  selection  for  similarity  of  type.  To 
concentrate  type,  they  were  forced  to  concentrate 


156  Sheep-Farming 

blood,  because  the  best  sires  outside  their  own  flocks 
were  inferior  to  the  ones  they  had  bred  themselves. 
The  same  is  true  of  some  breeding  flocks  of  the 
present.  Because  of  the  exercise  of  extraordinary 
care  and  skill,  some  breeders  who  are  holding  to  a 
special  type  within  a  breed  are  themselves  limited 
to  their  own  flocks  in  selecting  the  material  to  effect 
further  progress.  Such  are  the  breeders  who  breed 
their  own  stud  rams.  Such  a  course  involves  some 
risk  of  injury  to  the  flock  in  which  it  is  followed, 
but  when  carefully  done,  it  gives  the  stock  an  extraor- 
dinary prepotency  that  is  invaluable  to  any  other 
flockmaster  who  aims  at  the  same  type. 

It  was  said  that  a  succession  of  sires  unrelated  but 
of  similar  type  was  scarcely  so  certain  of  results  as 
the  succession  of  related  ones.  The  success  of  either 
plan  depends  more  upon  the  judgment  exercised  in 
selecting  those  sires  than  upon  the  system.  The 
same  is  true  of  any  other  phase  of  breeding. 

Since  the  principle  of  the  matter  is  that  the 
characters  of  a  single  animal  are  perpetuated  and 
held  together  by  close  matings,  there  can  be  no  gain 
in  concentrating  the  blood  of  any  but  the  animals 
of  the  highest  excellence.  Whatever  apparent  or 
concealed  weakness  they  have  will  also  be  made 
more  pronounced,  the  apparent  ones  becoming  more 
serious,  and  those  not  apparent  becoming  strong 
enough  to  exhibit  themselves  very  markedly.  The 
flocks  that  have  been  ruined  by  the  use  of  their 


The  Improvement  of  the  Flock  157 

own  rams  owe  their  disaster  to  the  fact  that  the 
reliance  was  placed  upon  kinship  of  blood  rather 
than  upon  kinship  of  excellence  without  defect. 
No  matter  what  progress  be  made  in  fixing  good 
qualities  of  fleece  and  form,  it  can  avail  nothing  if 
in  the  same  animals  there  was  concentrated  a  tend- 
ency to  low  vigor  or  low  fecundity.  The  advantage 
of  line-breeding  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  animals 
mated  are  some  distance  removed  from  the  common 
sire,  and  opportunity  is  allowed  to  select  individuals 
having  the  valuable  qualities  it  is  desired  to  preserve 
and  yet  are  free  from  the  weaknesses  of  the  strain. 
So  it  appears  that  the  question  resolves  itself  into 
a  matter  of  not  losing  sight  of  individuality  and 
considering  ancestry  at  more  than  its  real  value. 
The  old  rule  of  "the  best  to  the  best"  still  holds 
good.  So  long  as  one  can  obtain  a  ram  from  outside 
his  own  flock  that  is  better  calculated  by  indi- 
viduality and  parentage  to  bring  about  the  improve- 
ment desired,  he  should  do  so,  and  no  longer.  This 
assumes  that  the  breeder  is  as  fair  and  impartial  in 
judging  his  own  stock  as  in  judging  that  of  others. 
Such  ability  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule. 
If  upon  examination  of  the  pedigree  of  a  ram 
that  is  individually  satisfactory  and  from  approved 
parents,  it  should  develop  that  a  grandparent  or 
more  remote  ancestor  is  one  that  also  appears  in  the 
pedigree  of  the  ewes  for  which  the  ram  is  intended, 
then  the  existence  of  such  relationship  is  desirable 


158  Sheep-Farming 

rather  than  otherwise,  provided  the  animal  whose 
name  appears  in  both  pedigrees  produced  the  right 
kind  of  stock  and  that  his  weaknesses  do  not  appear 
in  the  descendants  to  be  mated. 

There  is  one  other  point  that  can  best  be  empha- 
sized when  mating  of  related  stock  is  under  considera- 
tion. Breeders  are  prone  to  make  their  selections 
upon  a  too  narrow  basis.  Especially  is  this  true 
when  some  special  excellence  of  fleece  or  form  has 
been  secured,  and  it  is  desired  to  perpetuate  it. 
Interest  is  centered  in  the  special  features,  and  the 
fundamental  requirements  of  constitutional  vigor 
are  ignored,  with  the  result  that  they  may  become 
so  impaired  as  to  nullify  all  the  good  that  has  been 
secured.  Constitutional  vigor  can  be  preserved 
and  improved  just  as  can  any  other  character  if  the 
matings  are  directed  toward  that  end. 

Culling  the  ewes.  —  The  selection  of  breeding 
ewes  is  of  no  less  importance  than  the  selection  of 
sires.  WTiile  a  single  ewe  has  only  a  fraction  of  the 
influence  that  the  sire  has  upon  the  future  of  the 
flock,  yet  the  standard  that  is  maintained  in  the  ewe 
flock  has  as  much  to  do  with  progress  as  have  con- 
siderations that  concern  the  rams.  At  the  best, 
only  a  part  of  the  ewe  lambs  of  any  season  can  be 
worthy  of  being  allowed  to  contribute  to  the  future 
lamb  crop.  The  culling  of  the  ewe  lambs  must  be 
based  first  on  their  individual  merits  as  shown  by 
type  and  points,  then  upon  what  may  be  known  of 


The  Improvement  of  the  Flock  159 

other  lambs  of  the  same  parents.  When  there  is 
doubt,  it  is  practicable  to  breed  the  young  ewe  once 
and  determine  her  fitness  by  the  merit  of  her  off- 
spring. In  all  this  there  lies,  for  most  persons,  the 
great  danger  of  retaining  unworthy  ewes  through  a 
desire  to  increase  numbers  or  through  inability  to 
see  defect  where  excellence  was  hoped  for.  In  some 
German  flocks,  outside  experts  are  employed  to  cull 
the  ewes  and  to  sort  them  into  lots^  for  each  of  which 
a  special  sire  is  chosen. 

Developing  the  lamb.  —  It  was  stated  in  the 
beginning  of  the  discussion  of  improvement  that 
three  opportunities  presented  themselves.  The  first 
was  in  the  selection  of  sires,  the  second  in  culling 
the  ewes,  and  the  third  in  developing  the  lambs. 
The  first  two  are  equally  important  in  determining 
the  inheritance  of  the  lambs,  the  last  has  to  do  with 
the  utilization  of  the  inheritance.  The  way  in 
which  the  lambs  are  fed  and  cared  for,  their  environ- 
ment, cannot  be  said  to  be  either  more  or  less 
important  than  their  inheritance.  Both  factors 
must  be  fully  attended  to  if  progress  is  to  be  made. 

The  chief  consideration  in  the  choosing  of  a  breed 
and  type  was  adaptability  to  the  conditions  under 
which  the  flock  was  to  be  kept  and  the  plan  of 
their  handling,  that  is,  the  age  and  weight  to  sell, 
and  kind  of  feeding.  The  foundation  stock  con- 
sisted of  representative  animals  secured  from  a 
flock  accustomed  to  the  same  kind  of  treatment. 


160  Sheep-Farming 

By  this  means  and  by  later  choices  of  sires  and 
cullings  of  ewes,  the  inheritance  has  been  arranged 
for.  The  inheritance  consists  in  abihty  to  use  feed  to 
produce  a  particular  kind  of  fleece  or  carcass  and  to 
develop  rapidly  under  liberal  feeding  or  more  slowly 
if  the  feeding  is  on  a  different  order.  The  signifi- 
cance of  the  adaptability  of  the  parents  is  wholly 
lost  if  the  lambs  are  not  afforded  an  environment 
during  their  growing  period  that  corresponds  to 
that  in  which  and  for  which  the  breed  was  developed. 
When  the  lambs  are  afforded  ample  opportunity 
to  do  what  is  expected  of  them,  the  way  they  respond 
can  be  given  a  good  deal  of  weight  in  determining 
which  ones  should  be  discarded.  If  the  care  they 
receive  is  not  equal  to  that  furnished  the  foundation 
stock,  then  there  is  no  means  of  knowing  whether  or 
not  they  are  the  equals  of  their  parents,  and  there 
is  no  reliable  way  of  checking  upon  the  breeder's 
work.  The  importance  of  fairly  testing  the  merit 
of  the  lambs  should  further  emphasize  the  need  of  a 
clear  plan  of  management  before  starting  in.  Other- 
wise, after  a  few  years  have  shown  the  most  profit- 
able plan  of  handling,  it  may  be  found  that  another 
breed  is  needed.  In  such  a  case,  a  fresh  start  must 
be  made,  and  the  experience  gained  is  all  that  re- 
mains, whereas  if  suitable  stock  had  been  procured 
at  first,  the  returns  and  the  improvement  effected 
would  be  more  satisfying  than  bare  experience. 
Cross-breeding.  —  The     crossing     of     established 


The  Improvement  of  the  Flock  161 

breeds  of  sheep  is  justifiable  or  necessary  only  in 
breeding  for  the  market.  While  it  is  true  that  cross- 
ing was  practiced  in  forming  existing  breeds,  it  was 
practically  always  the  object  to  impart  some  charac- 
ters of  an  established  breed  to  stock  that  had  not 
been  previously  improved.  Present-day  use  of 
cross-bred  sheep  for  breeding  purposes  would  be 
necessary  only  in  cases  where  it  is  impossible  to 
procure  a  breed  of  the  kind  needed.  To  some  extent 
this  is  true  of  western  state  ranges,  where  cross- 
bred ewes  are  quite  largely  used  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. It  is  by  no  means  agreed  by  all  range  breeders 
that  crossing  is  necessary,  but  it  is  true  that,  aside 
from  the  Merino,  they  have  no  breed  that  is  the 
product  of  similar  conditions.  The  crossing  that  is 
practiced  necessitates  extra  expense  in  purchasing 
ewes  at  intervals  and  makes  steady  improvement 
impossible.  Ewes  of  Merino  blood  that  are  to  be 
discarded  on  account  of  age  are  sometimes  bred 
to  rams  of  the  mutton  breeds.  The  ewes  with  their 
cross-bred  lambs  are  more  salable  to  feeders  and 
for  mutton,  the  lambs  of  both  sexes  being  marketed 
and  the  breeding  flock  kept  pure.  In  parts  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  the  hill  and  mountain  breeds  are 
crossed  with  rams  of  the  lower  country  breeds. 
This  is  done  in  order  to  secure  lambs  that  are  more 
suitable  for  the  feeders  than  those  of  the  pure  native 
breed.  The  ewe  flocks  are  kept  pure.  This  is 
necessary    because    of    their    adaptability    to    the 


162  Sheep-Farming 

country  and  the  conditions  under  which  the  flocks 
must  be  maintained  in  the  interests  of  practical 
economy  and  profit. 

The  farmer  has  seldom  any  need  to  cross  breeds 
for  the  above  reasons.  The  practice  requires  the 
purchase  of  other  rams,  and  the  flock  must  be 
bred  in  two  parts,  one  part  being  mated  to  rams  of 
their  own  breed  to  furnish  fresh  ewes  to  keep  up  the 
breeding  flock.  If  all  the  ewes  produce  cross-bred 
lambs  in  any  season,  there  is  no  opportunity  to  make 
a  change  in  the  ewe  flock  that  year.  It  is  generally 
considered  that  the  crossing  of  breeds  has  the  specific 
effect  of  giving  greater  vigor  and  more  rapid  growth 
than  characterizes  either  of  the  parent  breeds.  The 
extent  of  any  such  advantage  over  carefully  raised 
pure-bred  sheep  has  not  been  determined  by  experi- 
ment. The  possible  advantage  from  cross-breeding 
in  farm  flocks  is  seldom  very  great,  and  the  practice 
can  be  followed  safely  only  when  the  main  ewe  flock 
is  kept  pure. 


CHAPTER  VII 
AUTUMN  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FLOCK 

The  various  and  numerous  details  of  flock  man- 
agement can  be  discussed  most  logically  by  taking 
them  up  in  natural  order,  beginning  with  the  autumn. 
The  beginner  with  sheep  is  likely  to  make  his  pur- 
chases in  the  fall.  With  the  established  flock,  the 
fall  is  the  time  for  closing  up  the  old  year  and  putting 
the  flock  in  shape  to  produce  the  next  crop  of  lambs. 
Only  the  breeding  sheep  will  be  discussed,  the  needs 
of  the  weaned  lambs  at  this  period  being  treated 
as  the  last  consideration  of  summer  management. 
The  aim  of  the  shepherd,  beginning  with  the  autumn 
season,  should  be  to  have  his  ewes  improving  in 
condition  so  that  they  may  be  prepared  for  the 
winter  season.  There  are  various  details  relating 
to  the  management  and  feeding  that  require  atten- 
tion at  this  time,  chiefly  with  the  object  of  having 
ewes  in  such  thrift  that  they  will  pass  through  the 
winter  season  and  the  lambing  season  with  the  great- 
est success. 

Sorting  the  ewes.  —  The  important  things  to  be 
attended  to  in  the  fall  are  the  culling  of  the  ewes, 
having  them  get  in  lamb,  and  the  selection  of  the 
rams.     In  fact,  the  latter  matter  should  by  no  means 

163 


164  Sheep-Farming 

be  deferred  until  the  fall.  The  culling  of  the  ewes 
is  equal  in  importance  to  the  choice  of  a  ram.  The 
fall  flock  should  contain  no  ewes  past  breeding  age 
that  have  not  had  or  raised  lambs.  Keeping  a  ewe 
that  has  failed  to  get  in  lamb  in  a  fair  season  is  a 
doubtful  matter.  Such  should  be  in  good  condition 
in  the  spring  and  can  be  disposed  of  then  and  leave 
their  room  for  more  productive  individuals.  Two 
factors  determine  a  ewe's  fitness  to  remain  in  the 
breeding  flock.  The  first  is  the  character  of  lambs 
she  has  raised,  and  the  second  her  prospects  for 
usefulness  as  shown  by  age  and  condition.  The 
lambs  will  have  been  taken  away  some  time  previous 
to  the  time  of  sorting  out  the  ewes  for  breeding. 
Unless  the  shepherd  is  sufficiently  familiar  with  the 
flock  to  be  able  to  remember  what  kind  of  lamb  each 
ewe  raised  and  how  she  nursed  it,  some  plan  should 
be  adopted  to  facilitate  the  sorting  of  the  ewes  on 
that  basis.  In  flocks  in  which  ewes  and  lambs  are 
numbered  and  entered  in  a  flock  book,  it  is  no  great 
task  in  going  over  the  lambs  to  mark  the  numbers  of 
the  poorer  ones,  and  to  then  make  a  list  of  the  dams 
of  the  cull  lambs  for  guidance  in  sorting.  Ewes  with 
spoiled  udders  should  also  be  marked  for  the  butcher. 
The  best  milking  ewes  are  likely  to  be  lowest  in 
condition,  and  if  appearance  and  condition  are  the 
only  guides,  the  best  breeders  are  liable  to  be  put 
among  the  culls  and  the  poorest  mothers  retained. 
Age  0/  breeding  ewe.  —  It  is  generally  considered 


Autumn  Management  of  the  Flock  165 

that  a  good  breeding  ewe  should  be  kept  as  long  as 
she  will  breed.  Occasionally  there  are  ewes  that 
will  continue  to  breed  good  lambs  until  nine  or  ten 
years  of  age,  long  after  they  have  lost  the  power  of 
getting  into  marketable  condition.  In  pure-bred 
flocks,  the  extra  value  of  the  lambs  from  such  ewes 
much  more  than  overbalances  the  loss  from  being 
unable  to  realize  upon  them  when  they  finally 
succumb.  Special  attention  in  feeding  such  ewes 
after  their  teeth  are  gone  is  also  well  repaid.  In  a 
strictly  commercial  flock,  however,  it  is  more  eco- 
nomical to  discard  ewes  before  they  are  too  far  gone 
to  bring  a  fair  price  from  the  butcher.  The  aim 
should  be  to  keep  the  flock  composed  mainly  of  ewes 
four  or  five  years  old.  Two-year-olds  with  first 
lambs  are  not  as  reHable  as  when  older,  and  the  third 
and  fourth  years  should  be  the  most  profitable  ones. 
After  five  years  of  age,  a  ewe  is  likely  to  have  a 
broken  mouth  and  to  be  less  thrifty  on  that  account. 
The  age  of  losing  the  teeth  varies  with  breeds  and 
individuals. 

Dentition  of  sheep.  —  The  age  is  told  largely  by  the 
order  of  the  appearance  of  the  permanent  incisors. 
The  temporary  incisors  that  are  characteristic  of 
lambs  are  quite  different  from  the  permanent  ones, 
which  begin  to  appear  when  the  lamb  is  about  one 
year  old.  The  temporary  incisors  are  very  long 
and  narrow  and  constricted  at  the  neck,  and  they 
are  white  in  color.     There  are  eight  of  these,  and  they 


166  Sheep-Farming 

seem  to  be  replaced  very  regularly  by  a  permanent 
pair  of  incisors  each  year.  The  difference  between 
temporary  and  permanent  teeth  can  be  readily 
learned  by  studying  the  mouth  of  a  sheep  known  to 
be  one  or  two  years  old.  The  jfirst  pair  of  central 
permanent  incisors  usually  make  their  appearance 
when  the  lamb  is  about  one  year  old,  and  they  attain 
their  full  growth  a  few  months  later.  The  next 
pair,  that  is,  one  on  each  side  of  the  central  pair, 
make  their  appearance  about  one  year  later,  so  that 
the  sheep  has  two  pairs  of  permanent  incisors  when 
it  is  a  little  over  two  years  old.  The  third  pair 
appear  the  next  year,  making  the  sheep  slightly 
over  three  years  c  Id  when  there  are  three  pairs  of 
permanent  incisors.  The  last  or  fourth  pair,  that 
is,  one  of  each  end  of  the  row  of  incisors,  appear 
when  the  sheep  is  slightly  over  four  years  old.  As 
a  rule,  the  mouth  is  full  when  the  sheep  reaches 
five  years  old.  In  the  instance  of  lambs  that  have 
been  forced  when  young,  the  teeth  very  often 
appear  before  the  ordinary  time,  and  there  are  many 
instances  of  variation  from  the  time  that  has  been 
given.  With  advancing  age,  the  teeth  show  wider 
apart,  and  when  shed,  handicap  the  animal  greatly 
in  grazing. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  part  the  jaws  in  examining 
the  teeth.  Standing  at  the  left  side  of  the  sheep, 
hold  the  head  firmly  against  the  thigh  with  the  right 
hand  and  with  the  two  forefingers  of  the  left  hand 


Autumn  Management  of  the  Flock  167 

separate  the  lips  sufficiently  to  allow  a  view  of  the 
teeth. 

Breeding  yearling  ewes.  —  The  number  of  ewe 
lambs  will  ordinarily  be  considerably  greater  than  the 
number  of  ewes  to  be  cast  off.  This  allows  a  thorough 
culling  of  the  lambs  to  be  made.  In  the  fall  of  the 
yearhng  form,  they  can  again  be  gone  over  and  only 
the  most  promising  used  to  replace  the  old  ewes 
that  have  been  discarded.  It  is  very  desirable  to 
breed  yearling  ewes  to  an  old  ram  that  is  known  to 
be  a  sure  breeder  and  a  good  sire.  When  this  is 
done,  there  can  be  no  mistake  in  seHing  those  that 
fail  to  produce  good  lambs  because  the  inferiority 
in  the  lambs  in  such  cases  is  properly  attributed  to 
the  ewe. 

Time  of  mating.  —  The  time  at  which  the  breeding 
season  begins  will  depend  largely  on  the  local  con- 
ditions and  the  parentage  of  the  flock.  It  will  be 
generally  found  that  ewes  of  Dorset  descent  or 
Merino  breeding  may  be  bred  at  unusual  seasons, 
but  with  other  breeds  of  sheep  the  usual  breeding 
season  is  either  in  September  or  October.  It  usually 
begins  with  the  first  cold  weather  that  comes  in  the 
fall.  The  length  of  the  winter  season  and  the  time 
at  which  the  ewes  may  be  first  turned  on  pasture  are 
the  factors  which  are  mainly  involved  in  deciding 
the  beginning  of  the  best  period  to  have  the  ewes 
lamb.  The  ewe  carries  her  lamb  about  one  hundred 
and  forty-seven  days,  though  this  may  vary  three  or 


168  Sheep-Farming 

four  days,  either  longer  or  shorter.  Under  northern 
conditions,  it  is  advisable  to  arrange  the  breeding 
season  so  that  the  lambs  may  be  dropped  about 
two  or  three  weeks  before  the  flock  is  to  be  turned 
out  on  pasture.  The  chief  reason  for  this  is  that  if 
the  flock  is  on  pasture  at  the  time  of  lambing,  less 
attention  can  be  given  to  the  lambs,  and  there  are 
some  changes  likely  to  take  place  in  the  milk  of  the 
ewes  that  will  cause  scouring  among  the  lambs. 

Need  of  haviiig  stock  in  good  condition.  —  The 
inheritance  of  the  lamb  expected  is  arranged  for 
and  determined  beyond  direct  control  when  the 
matings  are  arranged.  It  should  always  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  ewe's  impression  upon  the  lamb 
is  conveyed  solely  by  an  ovum  or  Qgg  discharged 
from  the  ovary  at  the  time  of  breeding.  The  sire's 
contribution  to  the  inheritance  of  the  lamb  is  con- 
veyed in  a  single  spermatozoon,  microscopic  in  size, 
which  unites  with  the  ovum.  This  union  consti- 
tutes fertilization,  and  the  cell  so  produced,  supplied 
with  nourishment  from  the  dam's  circulation,  de- 
velops into  the  new  individual.  The  hereditary 
material  from  the  parents  is  more  likely  to  be  active 
and  potent  in  developing  the  qualities  it  conveys 
when  the  body  of  the  parent  is  in  a  vigorous,  healthy, 
and  well -nourished  condition. 

Advantages  of  flushing  ewes.  —  There  are  other 
advantages  in  having  the  ewes  in  strong  condition 
when  they  are  mated.     A  shorter  lambing  season 


Autumn  Management  of  the  Flock  169 

IS  insured,  as  the  lambs  are  dropped  more  nearly 
together,  and  there  may  be  a  larger  number  of  them 
than  there  would  be  if  the  ewes  were  in  a  low  condi- 
tion at  breeding  time.  We  have  not  a  very  complete 
knowledge  of  the  conditions  that  govern  the  dis- 
charge of  ova  from  the  ovaries  and  the  number 
released  at  any  one  period.  The  ova  are  produced 
during  the  period  of  heat,  but,  except  in  the  Merino 
and  Dorset  breeds,  few  ewes  come  in  heat  without 
the  stimulus  of  the  cooler  nights  following  the  summer 
season  of  the  section  in  which  they  are  kept.  Im- 
ported English  ewes  kept  in  California  take  the  ram 
upon  the  approach  of  the  comparatively  cooler 
nights  of  July  and  August,  much  earlier  than  the 
same  ewes  had  previously  come  in  heat  in  England. 
All  direct  attempts  to  induce  coming  in  heat  by 
artificial  means  have  been  unsuccessful.  It  is  rea- 
sonable to  assume,  however,  and  experience  justifies 
the  assumption,  that  there  is  a  relation  between 
coming  in  heat  and  the  body  condition.  Ewes 
that  are  abnormally  fat  are  likely  to  show  the  results 
of  the  fattening  conditions  in  the  impairment  of  the 
functions  of  the  ovaries.  The  same  is  true  of  an 
abnormally  low  or  under-nourished  condition. 
When  the  ewes  are  all  in  uniformly  good  condition, 
they  will  therefore  come  in  heat  regularly  and  be 
likely  to  get  in  lamb.  If  the  ram  service  is  properly 
arranged,  the»majority  of  the  ewes  will  get  in  lamb  at 
the  first  or  second  service.     Since  ewes  come  in  heat 


170  Sheep-Farming 

at  intervals  of  from  fourteen  to  twenty-one  days, 
this  gives  a  lambing  time  of  the  same  length  for  the 
ewes  in  lamb  to  service  in  the  first  or  second  heat 
period  after  the  ram  is  turned  in.  Considerable  at- 
tention is  required  for  lambing  ewes,  especially  for 
those  producing  their  first  lambs.  It  is  easier  for 
the  shepherd  to  care  for  a  number  of  ewes  and  young 
lambs  each  day  and  night  for  a  short  time  than  to 
have  them  come  straggling  along  through  several 
weeks.  The  lambs  are  then  uniform  in  size  and  get 
well  started  under  the  same  conditions. 

The  number  of  lambs  produced  is  determined  by 
the  number  of  ova  produced  by  the  ewe.  The  ram 
may  sometimes  be  unable  to  produce  spermatozoa 
to  fertilize  the  ovum,  but  there  are  no  grounds  for 
believing  that  the  reason  for  single  or  twin  lambs  lies 
with  the  ram.  It  is  true  that  the  opinion  is  some- 
times held  that  a  ram  that  is  a  twin  gets  a  larger 
percentage  of  lambs  than  one  that  was  a  single 
Iamb.  The  number  of  spermatozoa  contained  in  the 
seminal  fluid  at  each  service  runs  into  the  thousands. 
Over-use  or  otherwise  impaired  conditions  may  lower 
the  number  oi:  suspend  the  production  of  the  sper- 
matozoa altogether,  or  it  may  cause  them  to  be  less 
vigorous  and  active  in  traversing  the  passage  toward 
the  ovum.  For  these  reasons,  the  management  of 
the  ram  is  an  important  factor.  But  it  is  most 
improbable  that  if  one  spermatozoon  should  fertilize 
an  ovum,  another  ovum  produced  at  the  same  time 


Autumn  Management  of  the  Flock  171 

should  fail  to  be  fertilized  for  lack  of  a  second  active 
spermatozoon  among  the  thousands  produced. 

Ova  produced  by  ewes.  —  In  an  investigation 
made  by  Dr.  F.  H.  A.  Marshall  of  Cambridge 
University,  England,  55  ewes  were  slaughtered  and 
their  ovaries  examined  during  the  mating  season. 
Of  this  number,  42  had  discharged  one  ovum  only ; 
7  had  discharged  one  ovum  from  each  ovary;  in 
5  cases,  two  ova  were  discharged  from  one  ovary ;  and 
there  was  1  case  in  which  two  were  discharged  from 
one  ovary  and  one  from  the  other.  This  number  of 
ova  corresponded  to  the  proportions  of  twins  and 
triplets  common  in  the  breed  to  which  the  ewes 
belonged.  Ewes  that  are  in  good  condition  may  be 
expected  to  produce  two  ova  more  frequently  than 
they  would  if  in  a  low  condition. 

The  fact  that  the  ewes  that  lamb  earliest  produce 
more  twins  than  the  late  lambing  ewes  is  sometimes 
held  to  show  that  the  ram  is  most  prolific  early  in 
the  breeding  season.  The  more  reasonable  explana- 
tion is  that  some  ewes  are  sexually  more  active  than 
others  and  for  the  same  reason  come  in  season  and 
get  in  lamb  first.  Taking  the  ground  that  the  ram 
does  not  govern  the  number  of  lambs  so  long  as  he 
is  in  reasonable  condition,  does  not  oppose  the  idea 
that  a  male  may  transmit  the  fecundity  of  his  dam  to 
his  daughters,  which  would  enable  him  to  influence 
in  some  degree  the  number  of  his  descendants  in 
the  second  generation,  but  not  in  the  first. 


172  Sheep-Farming 

Having  ewes  in  condition  to  insure  a  short  lamb- 
ing season  and  a  good  percentage  of  lambs  does  not 
mean  that  they  should  be  in  market  or  show  con- 
dition. The  main  thing  is  that  they  be  gaining  when 
bred.  The  methods  practiced  by  British  shepherds 
for  getting  ewes  into  good  breeding  condition  is 
called  *' flushing."  After  weaning  the  lambs,  it  is 
desirable  to  run  ewes  on  short  pasture  until  the  flow 
of  milk  has  stopped.  After  this,  if  they  are  turned  on 
good  pasture,  nothing  more  is  ordinarily  needed. 
Good  grass  pastures  will  suffice  or,  if  that  is  not  avail- 
able, rape  or  rye  or  other  forage  crops  will  answer. 
If  there  is  no  suitable  grazing,  a  light  ration  of  grain 
containing  not  more  than  one  half  corn  can  be  used 
to  good  advantage.  There  is  no  advantage  in  stinting 
ewes  that  are  in  lamb.  The  demands  of  the  fetus 
are  not  so  great  at  first  as  in  the  last  months  of  preg- 
nancy. A  continuation  of  the  food  given  at  breeding 
time  might  bring  the  ewes  into  higher  condition  than 
is  necessary  or  desirable,  but  this  will  depend  upon 
the  pasturage  and  the  feeds  at  hand  during  winter. 

The  ram  in  the  breeding  season.  —  The  main  req- 
uisite in  the  management  of  the  ram  during  the 
breeding  season  is  to  prevent  his  getting  into  a  run- 
down condition  through  overuse  or  underfeeding 
or  both.  If  either  of  these  conditions  is  permitted, 
there  may  be  a  total  suspension  of  the  ability  to 
breed,  but  this  is  not  likely  to  occur  in  farm  flocks 
of  ordinary  size.     On  the  range  where  feeding  is  not 


Autumn  Management  of  the  Flock  173 

always  practical  and  the  demands  are  extreme, 
troubles  with  stock  rams  are  more  common.  Ab- 
normal condition,  either  from  underfeeding  or  over- 
feeding, is  likely  to  result  unfavorably.  A  good 
robust,  vigorous  condition  with  moderate  fatness  is 
what  is  needed  in  the  ram  at  the  beginning  of  breed- 
ing and  should  be  maintained  as  far  as  possible  dur- 
ing the  season. 

Number  of  ewes  to  a  ram.  —  A  ram  that  is  a  yearl- 
ing or  older,  when  running  in  the  field  with  the  ewes, 
should  serve  fifty  ewes.  To  do  this,  he  should  be 
taken  out  and  fed  grain  at  least  once  each  day. 
Ram  lambs  will  do  well  as  sires  if  well  grown  and  used 
only  moderately.  About  twenty  is  as  large  a  num- 
ber of  ewes  as  can  be  relied  upon  for  good  results 
when  bred  to  a  ram  lamb. 

If  more  than  one  ram  is  mated,  it  is  good  economy 
to  divide  the  ewes  into  flocks  according  to  their 
adaptability  to  the  separate  rams.  If  rams  are  kept 
up,  however,  each  ewe  may  be  assigned  to  a  particular 
ram  as  she  comes  in  heat  and  is  ready  to  be  bred. 
By  keeping  the  ram  away  from  the  flock,  he  can 
care  for  nearly  twice  as  many  ewes  as  when  running 
in  the  field,  because  each  ewe  is  served  but  once  and 
the  ram's  vitality  thereby  conserved.  When  this 
plan  is  followed,  the  ram  is  turned  among  the  ewes 
in  the  morning  or  both  morning  and  evening.  The 
ewes  that  appear  to  be  in  heat  are  taken  out  and 
allowed  a  single  service.     A  ram  well  cared  for  and 


174  Sheep-Farming 

bred  on  this  plan  may  serve  two  or  three  ewes  both 
morning  and  evening  for  a  limited  number  of  days, 
and  a  well-cared-for  mature  ram  so  handled  can  get 
one  hundred  ewes  in  lamb  in  a  season. 

Marking  the  bred  ewes.  —  Whether  the  ewes  are 
bred  in  the  field  or  the  barn,  some  plan  of  marking 
is  necessary  in  order  to  keep  track  of  when  the  lambs 
are  due.  For  field  breeding  the  common  practice 
is  to  paint  the  breast  of  the  ram  each  day.  When 
this  is  done,  it  is  easy  to  tell  which  ewes  are  bred 
and  to  take  their  flock  numbers  and  record  the  date 
of  service.  If  the  color  of  paint  used  is  changed  at 
intervals  of  ten  days,  it  is  possible  to  know  which 
ewes  have  come  in  heat  again  and  how  sure  the 
ram  is. 

When  hand-breeding  is  practiced,  that  is,  when 
the  ram  is  not  allowed  to  run  with  the  flock,  the  ewes 
can  be  marked  as  bred.  Those  bred  the  first  week 
may  be  given  a  small  mark  on  the  left  shoulder. 
Those  bred  the  next  week  upon  the  left  side,  those 
the  following  weeks  upon  the  right  shoulder  and 
side  or  other  places.  This  makes  it  possible  to  go 
into  the  flock  at  lambing  time  and  readily  separate 
out  those  due  to  lamb  in  any  week  and  place  them 
in  suitable  quarters. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

WINTER  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FLOCK 

Success  in  bringing  sheep  through  the  winter  in 
good  condition  is  dependent  upon  the  observation 
of  a  few  principles  aside  from  feeding.  While 
some  shelter  is  necessary  in  practically  all  localities, 
nothing  in  the  way  of  close  housing  is  safe,  especially 
with  ewes  in  lamb.  Good  yard  accommodation  in 
which  the  sheep  can  keep  on  dry  footing  and  have 
plenty  of  room  to  exercise  is  the  first  requisite.  In 
the  house  or  sheds,  about  fifteen  square  feet  of  floor 
space  is  necessary  for  an  average-sized  sheep.  The 
fleece  affords  sufficient  warmth  while  it  is  dry,  and 
for  this  reason  the  main  need  in  a  shed  or  sheep  barn 
is  protection  from  storms  and  plenty  of  ventilation 
without  drafts.  If  the  quarters  are  airy  and  com- 
fortable, the  sheep  will  resort  to  them  whenever 
necessary.  On  most  dry  nights,  they  will  prefer  to 
be  out  of  doors  and  will  winter  much  better  if  allowed 
to  do  so  than  they  will  if  kept  confined  in  close  or 
crowded  pens.  It  is  usually  more  convenient  to 
have  the  feed  racks  inside,  but  some  of  the  rough  feed 
should  always  be  fed  out  of  doors.  With  breeding 
ewes,  toward  lambing  time  there  is  danger  of  injury 

175 


176  Sheep-Farming 

and  loss  of  lambs  from  crowding  through  narrow 
doorways.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  provide  an  old 
sod  upon  which  the  sheep  may  remain  until  winter 
storms  make  it  necessary  to  take  them  nearer  the 
barns.  With  dry  footing,  sheep  are  better  of!  to 
remain  in  the  fields  as  long  as  possible,  and  if  some 
grass  has  been  allowed  to  cure  upon  the  ground,  it 
is  a  good  place  for  the  ewes  during  the  daytime  until 
snow  becomes  deep  or  the  ground  becomes  wet. 

Division  of  the  flock  for  wintering.  —  One  advantage 
of  a  large  flock  is  that  the  sheep  are  more  likely  to 
be  sorted  by  age,  sex,  and  condition  into  various  lots 
for  w^intering.  In  a  small  flock  in  which  all  kinds 
are  run  together,  some  members  of  the  winter  flock 
are  sure  to  get  more  or  less  feed  than  they  need. 
It  is  first  of  all  desirable  to  have  one  shelter  and  lot 
for  ewe  lambs.  If  the  wether  lambs  and  cull  ewe 
lambs  are  to  be  sold  fat  after  shearing,  they  may  run 
the  first  part  of  the  winter  with  the  good  ewe  lambs 
and  be  separated  later  to  be  finished  for  market. 
Ordinarily,  however,  it  will  be  found  more  economical 
to  dispose  of  all  the  lambs  that  are  not  wanted  for 
breeders  in  the  fall  and  use  the  winter  feed  and 
quarters  mainly  for  a  large  number  of  breeding  ewes. 
When  ram  lambs  are  kept  over  to  sell  as  yearlings, 
they  will  need  to  be  in  a  separate  group.  Stud 
rams  may  run  with  the  ewes  in  lamb,  but  unless 
very  quiet  will  be  better  kept  away  as  lambing  time 
approaches.     The  number  of  ewes  in  lamb  that  will 


Winter  Management  of  the  Flock  177 

do  well  together  varies  with  the  breeds,  but  they  will 
thrive  better  in  lots  of  forty  or  fifty  than  in  larger 
numbers.  Ewes  carrying  lambs  for  the  first  time 
need  extra  feed  and  attention  and  can  make  up  a 
separate  lot  to  good  advantage. 

The  breeding  ewes  in  early  winter.  —  The  aim  in 
wintering  breeding  ewes  is  to  bring  them  to  lambing 
time  in  good  vigorous  condition  and  in  medium  flesh. 
The  health  and  vigor  desired  cannot  follow  a  close 
in-door  winter  life.  The  feeding  required  will  de- 
pend upon  the  season  and  the  condition  of  the  ewes 
at  the  time  the  pastures  are  abandoned.  It  some- 
times happens  that  ewes  that  run  out  until  late  in 
a  wet  fall  when  the  grass  is  heavy  but  soft  come  into 
quarters  quite  thin.  The  only  safe  guide  as  to 
condition  is  the  feel  of  the  backs  when  handled. 
By  going  among  a  lot  of  ewes  in  the  pen  or  barn 
and  noting  the  covering  of  the  vertebrae,  especially 
of  the  loin,  one  can  quickly  tell  just  how  they  are 
doing  and  which  ones  are  falling  behind  and  need 
to  be  separated  out  for  extra  feeding.  It  was  ad- 
vised that  ewes  carrying  their  first  lambs  be  made  a 
separate  lot  when  possible  and  given  extra  feed.  If 
this  is  done,  those  that  are  behind  the  others  in  the 
older  flock  can  be  put  with  the  young  ewes.  When 
the  fall  grass  is  soft  and  washy,  it  is  good  economy 
to  start  with  some  dry  feed  before  the  ewes  are  taken 
from  the  pasture.  Hay  may  be  used  at  this  time, 
though  a  feed  of  about  one-half  pound  of  grain  for 


178  Sheep-Farming 

each  ewe  daily  can  usually  be  taken  to  them  more 
conveniently.  Rape  sown  with  small  grains  or  at 
the  last  planting  of  corn  can  be  utilized  to  furnish  fall 
grazing.  Rye  sown  early  will  afford  fall  feed  and 
also  be  useful  in  the  spring.  Such  crops  must  be 
largely  used  in  maintaining  a  flock  upon  high-priced 
lands.  They  afford  fresh  ground,  which  is  necessary 
to  good  health  and  freedom  from  parasites.  They 
make  it  possible  to  keep  fewer  acres  in  grass,  though 
the  raising  of  them  entails  some  extra  labor  that 
is  more  than  repaid  by  good  sheep,  as  they  gather 
the  crops  themselves  with  a  minimum  of  waste. 
The  use  and  need  of  such  crops  in  sheep -farming  calls 
for  more  detailed  reference  in  the  chapter  devoted 
to  summer  management. 

Roughages  for  ewes.  —  Sheep  that  enter  the  winter 
in  good  heart  can  be  carried  until  nearly  lambing 
time  without  grain  feeding.  To  do  this,  however,  a 
good  supply  of  clean,  well-cured  roughages  is  neces- 
sary. Red  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  are  well-nigh  indis- 
pensable, indeed  without  one  of  them  grain  feeding 
must  be  resorted  to.  Corn  fodder  can  be  used  in 
wintering  ewes,  but  it  should  be  well  cured.  It  is 
most  satisfactory  for  feeding  on  dry  ground  some 
distance  from  the  barns,  so  that  the  ewes  get  exercise 
going  to  it  and  while  feeding.  Of  course  the  waste 
would  preclude  such  use  of  fodder  outside  the  corn 
states,  but  the  value  of  having  a  feed  to  use  out 
of  doors  is  considerable.     Pea  straw,  where  it  is  ob- 


Winter  Management  of  the  Flock  179 

tainable,  is  excellent  sheep  feed  and  is  often  fed  upon 
the  snow.  Its  value  is  nearer  that  of  clover  than  is 
that  of  any  other  straw.  The  advisability  of  cutting 
fodders  for  sheep  can  be  determined  mainly  on  the 
value  of  the  fodder  and  the  waste  that  is  saved  by 
so  doing.  The  advantage  to  the  sheep  is  of  no  great 
consequence.  British  shepherds  rely  largely  upon 
roots  in  wintering  sheep.  Some  of  them  consider 
that  a  liberal  use  of  turnips  is  unfavorable  to  a  good 
lamb  crop,  but  some  form  of  succulent  feed  is  highly 
desirable.  Corn  silage  can  be  used  to  furnish  suc- 
culence, though  some  losses  and  a  good  deal  of  trouble 
have  been  occasioned  by  feeding  silage.  The  greatest 
danger  seems  to  be  in  using  spoiled  silage.  Sheep 
are  peculiarly  susceptible  to  injury  from  any  moldy 
or  gassy  feed,  and  such  conditions  are  likely  to  exist 
when  corn  is  put  into  the  silo  too  green  or  has  kept 
poorly.  When  good  dry  fodder  or  hay  is  used  as 
part  of  the  rough  feed,  a  good  quality  of  silage  can 
be  used  to  good  advantage.  Account  needs  to  be 
taken  of  the  amount  of  grain  in  the  silage,  as  the 
ewes  may  be  made  overfat  if  the  rest  of  the  ration 
is  of  a  fattening  nature.  An  experiment  conducted 
at  the  Wisconsin  station  several  years  ago  gives  a 
good  line  on  the  comparative  values  of  various  feeds. 
In  all  lots,  the  ewes  were  fed  one-half  pound  of  oats 
each  per  day  during  the  first  four  weeks,  and  this 
was  changed  to  a  similar  amount  of  bran  for  the  last 
four  weeks.     The  results  were  as  follows  :  — 


180 


Sheep-Farming 


Fodder  under  Trial 

Quantity 
OP  Fodder 

UNDER 

Trial 

Eaten 

Sugar 
Beets 

Oats  or 
Bran 

Amount 

OF 

Refuse 

Increase 
in  Live 
Weight 
PER  Head 
IN  Eight 
Weeks 

Corn  fodder  (cut) .     . 
Oat  straw     .... 
Bluegrass  hay  .     .     . 

lb. 
1.75 
1.1 
1.5 

lb. 
3.1 
3.1 
3.1 

lb. 
.5 
.5 
.5 

% 
20. 
22. 

6.2 

lb. 

10.6 

1. 

4.8 

Corn  Silage 


Oat  hay  (uncut) 
Oat  hay  (cut)  . 
Alsike  clover  hay 


2.1 
1.5 

2. 


2.5 
2.4 

2.8 


25. 

16. 


19.1 
4.7 
19. 


Hat 


Corn  silage  . 
Sugar  beets 
Clover  silage 


2.2 
3.3 
2.3 


1.5 
1.5 
1.5 


12.9 


1.6 

7. 
7.3 


Grain  for  ewes  in  lamb.  —  The  amount  or  kind 
of  grain  that  should  be  used  will  depend  upon  the 
character  of  the  other  part  of  the  ration.  With  some 
silage  carrying  the  ordinary  amount  of  corn  and  alfalfa 
or  clover  hay,  little  or  no  grain  should  be  needed,  but 
this  can  be  determined  best  by  the  condition  of  the 
ewes  as  revealed  by  going  among  them.  Oats  are 
a  staple  feed  for  sheep,  but  their  value  often  makes  it 
advisable  to  use  a  nitrogenous  roughage  and  a  car- 
bonaceous concentrate.  Toward  lambing  time,  the 
growth  of  the  fetus  makes  demands  for  such  elements 


Winter  Management  of  the  Flock  181 

as  occur  in  oats  and  bran.  These  feeds  also  favor  a 
good  milk  flow,  and  their  use  for  a  few  weeks  before 
and  after  lambing  is  highly  desirable.  The  same 
results  may  be  obtained  from  other  combinations 
of  feeds  after  experience  has  been  gained,  but  the 
only  objection  there  can  be  to  the  use  of  oats  and 
bran  at  this  time  is  their  cost. 

Accessories  to  the  ration.  —  The  breeding  flock 
should  have  access  to  water  at  all  times,  especially 
is  this  true  after  they  have  lambed.  It  will  be  found 
then  that  ewes  seem  to  have  an  inordinate  thirst  for 
water,  and  it  should  be  supplied  to  them  liberally. 
Salt  should  also  be  within  their  reach.  If  they  have 
access  to  it  at  all  times,  they  will  never  eat  too  much, 
but  if  withheld  from  them  for  a  time,  they  may 
possibly  eat  more  than  they  should  when  it  is  again 
given  to  them.  They  seem  to  get  the  most  from 
coarse-grained  salt,  which  may  be  spread  on  the  sills 
of  the  shed  or  put  in  small  boxes  used  especially 
for  it. 

Rations  for  rams.  —  In  feeding  rams  during  the 
winter  season,  the  object  is  to  feed  them  as  cheaply 
as  possible  and  maintain  their  health  and  thrift. 
Oats  and  bran  and  oil  meal  may  be  rehed  on  to  meet 
all  the  requirements  of  a  grain  ration.  A  ram  should 
receive  one-half  to  one  pound  of  this  mixture,  though 
the  quality  should  be  decided  altogether  by  the 
condition  of  the  ram.  Clover  hay,  pea  straw,  or 
corn  fodder  are  the  best  foods  from  which  to  select 


182  Sheep-Farming  ^ 

the  coarse  portions  of  the  ration.  Some  succulent 
fodder,  such  as  silage  or  roots,  should  be  fed  so  as  to 
keep  the  ram  from  becoming  constipated.  From 
2  to  3  pounds  of  coarse  fodder  will  generally  be  found 
sufficient  as  a  daily  ration  for  a  ram  in  addition  to 
the  grain  before  mentioned.  A  ration  of  this  kind 
will  usually  keep  a  ram  hearty,  and  if  care  is  taken  to 
give  him  sufficient  exercise,  no  disorders  are  likely 
to  result.  Like  bulls,  rams  are  peculiarly  subject 
to  troubles  of  the  urinary  organs.  Such  ailments 
are  especially  frequent  when  mangels  are  fed.  On 
some  farms,  mangels  are  used  ^dthout  any  apparent 
injurious  results.  The  likelihood  of  trouble  renders 
it  advisable  to  use  these  roots  for  rams  with  caution. 
Lambs  that  are  being  wintered,  whether  ewes, 
rams,  or  wethers,  require  the  same  general  conditions, 
shelter,  and  system  of  feeding  as  the  ewes.  The 
feeding  needs  to  be  more  liberal,  and  the  proportion 
of  fattening  feeds  adapted  to  the  object  sought. 
The  finishing  of  sheep  for  market  is  the  topic  of  the 
eleventh  chapter. 


CHAPTER  IX 

SPRING  MANAGEMENT  OF   THE  FLOCK 

It  is  advisable  to  divide  the  ewes  into  lots  accord- 
ing to  the  time  they  are  due  to  lamb.  This  will 
assist  the  shepherd  in  keeping  informed  as  to  the 
time  of  lambing,  and  also  benefit  the  ewes.  By 
putting  the  ewes  that  are  in  the  same  degree  of 
pregnancy  together,  they  are  not  so  liable  to  be  in- 
jured, and  through  divisions  into  small  groups,  there 
is  likely  to  be  less  crowding  at  the  feed  boxes.  This 
is  a  very  critical  period  in  the  management  of  the 
flock,  and  every  attention  should  be  given  to  the  care 
and  comfort  of  the  ewes.  The  most  frequent  causes 
of  ewes  casting  their  lambs  originate  from  crowding 
about  the  feed  boxes,  pushing  through  narrow  gate 
ways,  jumping  over  gutters  or  deep  ruts,  and  rough 
handling,  especially  in  such  operations  as  turning 
the  ewes  to  trim  their  feet.  It  is  when  the  ewes 
have  passed  through  one-half  the  period  of  pregnancy 
that  these  things  are  most  likely  to  cause  them  to 
cast  their  lambs.  It  is  better  to  separate  the  ewes 
one  week  before  they  are  actually  due,  rather  than  to 
delay  this  until  their  period  of  gestation  has  almost 
passed.  The  duration  of  pregnancy  is  almost  in- 
variably 147  days. 

183 


184  Sheep-Farming 

Indications  of  lambing.  —  Indications  of  lambing 
are  noticeable  several  days  before  the  event  takes 
place.  There  is  a  marked  dropping  of  the  flanks 
accompanied  by  a  swollen  and  red  appearance  of 
the  vulva.  Immediately  preceding  lambing,  the 
ewe  becomes  restless  and  frequently  changes  her 
position. 

Trimming  and  cleaning  udders.  —  Previous  to 
lambing,  the  udders  of  the  ewes  should  be  trimmed 
when  necessary,  thereby  removing  all  wool  that 
might  be  in  the  way  of  the  lamb  when  it  attempts 
to  suck.  By  removing  too  much  of  the  covering  of 
the  udder,  inflammation  may  result  from  exposure. 
The  udder  should  be  cleaned  if  any  filth  has  gathered 
on  it,  for  such  will  often  prevent  the  lamb  from  suck- 
ing the  teat. 

Delayed  lambing.  —  In  many  instances,  the  ewe 
will  pass  the  normal  period  of  gestation  two  or 
three  days ;  usually  this  is  so  when  th^  lamb  is.  of 
the  male  sex,  though  it  may  be  due  to  something 
abnormal  in  the  presentation  or  result  from  injury 
to  the  lamb.  Unless  the  ewe  strains  as  if  in  parturi- 
tion, it  is  best  to  reserve  any  action.  If  she  endeav- 
ors to  lamb,  an  examination  will  usually  disclose  the 
cause  of  the  delay. 

Avoiding  disturbance  of  the  ewe.  —  Inexperienced 
shepherds  invariably  err  in  being  too  attentive  to 
the  ewe  when  lambing  is  about  to  take  place.  Unless 
there  is  evidence  that  something  is  wrong  in  the 


Spring  Management  of  the  Flock  185 

presentation  or  condition  of  the  fetus,  the  ewe  should 
not  be  annoyed.  She  should  be  left  quiet  and  un- 
noticed until  straining  begins. 

Assistance  in  lambing.  —  Sufficient  time  should 
be  given  to  the  ewe  to  give  birth  to  her  lamb  before 
an  attempt  is  made  to  assist  her.  After  straining 
a  few  times,  the  water  bag  is  expelled  and  becomes 
ruptured,  and  the  feet  of  the  lamb  then  make  their 
appearance.  In  most  instances,  especially  when  the 
presentation  is  right,  a  slight  strain  put  upon  these 
will  bring  a  prompt  delivery.  In  applying  force  to 
complete  the  delivery,  carefulness  should  be  observed 
only  to  do  so  when  the  ewe  strains.  If  care  is  not 
taken  to  act  in  unison  with  the  efforts  of  the  ewe, 
some  of  the  internal  parts  are  likely  to  be  injured  or 
inflammation  afterwards  results. 

Natural  presentation.  —  Normal  presentation  oc- 
curs when  the  lamb  makes  its  appearance  with  its 
front  feet  slightly  forward  of  the  nose,  with  the  head 
between  the  fore  legs.  When  in  this  position,  it  is 
easy  for  the  ewe  to  expel  the  fetus  unless  it  is  too 
large.  The  lamb,  when  in  a  natural  position,  lies 
upon  its  belly. 

Wrong  presentations.  —  These  may  be  due  to 
natural  causes,  though  they  are  often  the  result  of 
accident.  Insufficient  accommodations  at  the  feed- 
ing trough,  or  any  other  condition  that  is  likely  to 
cause  the  ewes  to  crush  or  push  each  other,  will  pro- 
duce them.     After  a  couple  of  hours  have  passed 


186  Sheep-Farming 

since  the  ewe  showed  signs  of  lambing,  an  examin- 
ation should  be  made  to  see  how  the  lamb  is  placed. 
If  it  is  in  its  proper  position,  then  the  ewe  should  be 
left  to  herself.  When  examination  reveals  the  fact 
that  assistance  should  be  given,  it  should  be  rendered 
with  prompt  dispatch. 

It  frequently  happens  in  cases  of  this  kind  that 
one  or  both  of  the  fore  legs  are  bent  backwards. 
In  the  first  instance,  it  is  best  to  try  and  deliver  the 
lamb  while  it  is  in  that  position  by  gently  pulling 
downwards  at  the  time  when  the  ewe  strains.  If 
delivery  cannot  be  secured  in  this  way,  the  backward 
limb  should  be  brought  forward  to  its  proper  position. 

When  both  fore  legs  are  back  and  the  head  is 
presented,  assistance  must  be  given.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  bring  the  legs  forward,  which  can  be 
accomplished  after  the  head  has  been  gently  thrust 
back. 

It  is  not  an  infrequent  occurrence  for  the  head  to 
be  slipped  down  between  or  on  one  side  of  the  fore 
legs.  With  a  little  patience  and  gentle  handling, 
the  head  can  be  raised  to  its  natural  position  above 
the  fore  legs  and  the  lamb  easily  withdrawn.  The 
head  is  sometimes  presented,  but  there  is  no  appear- 
ance of  the  feet.  When  this  occurs,  the  head  should 
be  forced  back  far  enough  to  allow  the  hand  sufficient 
room  in  the  vagina.  Then  feel  for  the  fore  legs, 
draw  them  forward  together,  and  attach  a  loop  of 
soft  cord  to  each  of  them  and  allow  them  to  recede. 


Spring  Management  of  the  Flock  187 

Then  secure  the  head  and  bring  it  forward,  into  the 
cavity  of  the  pelvis  by  grasping  the  whole  head  with 
the  hand.  If  there  is  not  sufficient  room  for  doing 
this,  put  a  loop  of  the  cord  around  the  lower  jaw  of 
the  fetus  and  pull  gently,  being  careful  not  to  injure 
the  jaw  by  too  much  pressure  or  force.  Then  by 
the  strings  draw  the  feet  forward,  and  the  lamb  may 
easily  be  extracted.  The  feet  sometimes  appear, 
but  the  head  is  not  to  be  seen.  In  such  an  instance 
force  the  feet  back  into  the  vagina  and  proceed  as 
in  the  last  case. 

When  parts  of  two  lambs  are  presented  at  the 
same  time,  push  both  back.  First  put  one  lamb  in 
proper  position,  then  draw  it  away,  and  usually  the 
other  one  will  be  easily  extracted. 

Broadside  presentations  are  unusual  occurrences. 
The  side  of  the  lamb  is  found  obstructing  the  uterus. 
To  place  the  fetus  in  its  proper  position  it  is  ad- 
visable to  turn  the  ewe  on  her  back  and  gently 
raise  her  from  the  ground  by  the  hind  legs.  In  this 
way  the  fetus  falls  forward,  and  when  the  hand  is 
introduced,  it  is  easy  to  adjust  it  properly. 

Sometimes  the  fetus  is  on  its  back;  then  the 
treatment  should  be  the  same  as  in  the  last  instance. 
The  lamb  may  be  too  large  for  the  passage,  which 
may  result  in  the  loss  of  the  lamb  or  the  ewe.  To 
save  the  ewe,  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  a  knife  to 
dissect  the  lamb.  This  is  most  easily  done  by  sever- 
ing the  shoulders  from  the  body. 


188  Sheep-Farming 

A  breech  presentation  occurs  when  the  hind  legs 
are  first  presented.  Usually  it  is  not  advisable  to 
attempt  the  delivery  of  a  lamb  in  that  position  with- 
out trying  to  turn  it.  \Mien  an  instance  of  this 
occurs,  the  delivery  should  be  hastened,  otherwise 
suffocation  may  result. 

Another  form  of  breech  presentation  is  one  in 
which  the  hind  legs  appear  at  the  opening  of  the 
womb  and  are  bent  backwards.  Place  the  ewe  on 
her  back ;  let  an  assistant  stride  across  her,  facing 
the  hinder  parts,  and  holding  the  hind  quarters  as 
high  as  possible  by  taking  a  firm  grasp  of  the  leg 
between  the  thick  of  the  leg  and  the  hock.  When 
the  ewe  is  in  this  position,  gently  insert  the  hand 
into  the  passage  until  the  lamb  is  reached.  Pass 
the  hand  from  the  rump  of  the  lamb  to  the  thighs, 
and  by  taking  hold  of  the  legs  as  near  the  foot  as 
possible,  draw  it  forward  into  proper  position.  When 
the  same  is  accomplished  with  the  other  leg,  it  is 
easy  to  secure  delivery.  Monstrosities  are  sometimes 
the  cause  of  trouble.  As  a  rule,  they  cannot  be  re- 
moved without  the  use  of  a  knife. 

In  handling  ewes  with  awkward  presentations, 
roughness  and  hurry  should  be  avoided.  The  hand 
should  be  anointed  with  fresh  lard  and  oil,  and  the 
finger  nails  trimmed  short.  After  the  ewe  has  ex- 
perienced difficult  labor,  the  parts  should  be  soothed 
with  carbolized  oil,  or  a  solution  of  creolin,  one  to  fifty 
parts  water,  may  be  used  to  allay  the  inflammation. 


Spring  Management  of  the  Flock  189 

Still-born  lambs.  —  When  a  ewe  has  been  carrying 
dead  lambs  for  some  time,  her  head  droops  and  her 
eye  has  a  dull  appearance;  she  seems  feverish  and 
refuses  food,  and  there  is  a  watery  discharge  attended 
by  a  very  offensive  smell.  Everything  is  in  an  un- 
natural state,  and  the  lamb  is  very  much  swollen. 
When  it  is  taken  away,  it  is  usually  wrapped  in  a 
putrid  and  offensive  fetal  covering.  In  all  cases 
where  the  delivery  has  been  difficult  or  when  dead 
lambs  have  been  removed,  the  conditions  are  favor- 
able for  the  ewe  to  be  attacked  by  inflammation. 
With  a  view  to  checking  this,  a  small  quantity  of 
carbolized  oil  or  the  creolin  solution  should  be  injected 
into  the  womb,  and  two  drachms  of  laudanum  given 
internally  with  two  spoonfuls  of  linseed  oil.  This 
should  be  repeated  if  the  inflammation  does  not  sub- 
side. It  is  advisable  to  remove  from  the  rest  of  the 
flock  such  ewes  as  have  had  dead  lambs.  Feed  them 
carefully,  and  in  severe  cases  it  will  be  well  to  let  them 
have  oatmeal  or  flaxseed  gruel  three  times  a  day, 
made  with  a  pint  of  warm  milk.  Do  not  allow  such 
ewes  to  drink  much  cold  water. 

After  treating  ewes  with  this  trouble,  the  shepherd 
should  be  careful  to  wash  and  disinfect  his  hands 
in  a  two  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  the  creo- 
lin solution. 

Removal  of  the  after-birth.  —  When  the  delivery 
has  been  normal,  the  after-birth  or  placenta  generally 
comes   away  with    or   shortly  after   the   lamb.     In 


190  Sheep-Farming 

some  cases,  it  may  remain  for  a  day.  In  such  in- 
stances, it  should  be  removed  before  it  begins  to 
putrefy,  and  the  passage  treated  with  creolin  solution. 
The  after-birth  should  never  be  left  in  the  pen  where 
the  ewe  has  lambed. 

Possibility  of  a  second  lamb.  —  In  instances  of 
twins,  the  arrival  of  the  second  lamb  is  sometimes 
delayed.  The  ewe  becomes  so  engrossed  in  the  care 
of  the  first  lamb  that  she  becomes  unmindful  of  the 
continued  pains  of  labor.  If  the  second  lamb  is  in 
proper  position,  it  is  not  long  in  making  its  appear- 
ance. When  this  occurs,  it  should  be  at  once 
brought  to  the  notice  of  the  ewe  by  placing  it  in 
front  of  her.  This  guards  against  any  possibility 
of  the  ewe  disowning  this  lamb. 

Assisting  the  lamb.  —  After  the  ewe  has  cleansed 
and  dried  the  lamb,  and  it  has  rested  a  half  hour  or 
so,  it  should  be  assisted  to  suck,  if  it  is  not  able  to 
do  this  of  its  own  accord.  In  the  case  of  young  ewes, 
this  must  be  attended  to,  as  the  anxiety  on  their  part 
to  keep  the  lamb  in  sight  prevents  the  lamb  sucking. 
The  ewe  should  be  held  and  the  lamb  brought  to  the 
teat,  the  wax  being  previously  squeezed  out. 

Attention  at  birth.  —  As  soon  as  the  lamb  is  born, 
clean  the  mucus  from  its  nostrils  and  mouth.  It 
is  customary  to  blow  into  the  nostrils  of  the  lamb  to 
assist  it  in  breathing.  Bring  the  lamb  before  the 
ewe  and  leave  them  for  a  period  of  twenty  minutes 
or  so.     Let  her  have  time  to  clean  and  dry  it.     If 


Spring  Management  of  the  Flock  191 

she  is  backward  in  attending  to  this,  sprinkle  a  pinch 
of  salt  over  the  lamb.  A  lamb  of  ordinary  strength 
will  at  once  seek  its  mother's  milk ;  but  if  it  is  weak, 
it  must  be  assisted. 

Marking  the  lambs.  —  The  most  common  method 
of  recording  the  parentage  of  lambs  is  to  number 
them  while  only  a  few  days  old  by  a  system  of 
notches  in  the  ear.  Tags  in  the  ears  of  young  lambs 
are  likely  to  tear  out.  The  notches  afford  a  perma- 
nent mark,  though  most  associations  that  record  pure- 
bred sheep  require  the  use  of  the  label  bearing  the 
official  number  after  the  lamb  is  recorded.  This 
official  label  can  be  inserted  at  weaning  time,  when 
there  is  small  danger  of  its  being  torn  out,  and  the 
official  number  recorded  along  with  the  flock  number 
indicated  by  the  notches.  A  system  of  notches  can 
be  made  to  cover  several  thousand.  Such  a  number 
would  serve  most  flocks  for  several  years.  The 
lower  numbers  are  most  commonly  used,  and  along 
with  the  year  of  birth.  The  breeder's  name,  the 
flock  number,  and  the  year  make  up  the  individual 
designations  mainly  used  in  registration :  thus, 
Johnson  176 — 1910.  A  separate  mark  to  indicate 
the  year  may  be  given  each  lamb  of  a  season,  but  this 
is  not  likely  to  be  needed.  Until  four  years  of  age 
the  teeth  are  sufficient  guide  as  to  the  year  of  birth, 
and  if  older  ewes  are  too  numerous  to  be  remembered, 
the  official  number  and  flock  book  furnish  identi- 
fication.    These  notches  can  be  made  with  the  punch 


192  Sheep-Farming 

used  for  labels,  but  only  the  corner  should  be  used, 
as  a  large  notch  in  a  young  lamb's  ear  becomes  a 
disfiguration  later. 

The  system  of  notching  is  based  on  the  numbers 
one,  three,  and  nine. 

One  is  —  one  notch  at  base  of  right  ear  on  lower 
side. 

Two  —  two  notches  at  base  of  right  ear  on  lower 
side. 

Three  —  one  notch  at  tip  of  right  ear. 

Four  —  one  notch  at  base  and  one  at  tip  of  lower 
side  of  right  ear. 

Five  —  a  combination  of  two  and  three. 

Six  —  two  notches  at  tip  of  right  ear,  lower  side. 

Seven  —  one  notch  at  base  and  two  at  tip  of 
right  ear,  lower  side. 

Eight  —  five  and  three  combined. 

Nine  —  one  notch  in  middle  of  lower  side  of 
right  ear. 

Similar  marks  in  the  left  ear  have  a  value  of  ten 
each.  One  hundred  is  made  by  a  notch  in  the  upper 
side  of  the  left  ear.  Three  hundred  would  be  shown 
by  a  notch  at  the  tip  of  the  upper  side  of  the  left  ear. 
Each  notch  in  the  upper  side  of  the  left  ear  counts 
one  hundred,  and  the  number  of  hundreds  is  shown 
by  the  same  positions  and  combinations  for  units  in 
the  lower  side  of  the  right  ear.  Correspondingly,  each 
notch  in  the  upper  side  of  the  left  ear  represents  one 
thousand. 


Spring  Management  of  the  Flock  193 

Weak  lambs.  —  Warmth  is  one  of  the  best  stimu- 
lants to  use  when  the  lamb  is  weak.  The  quarters 
should  supply  this  as  far  as  possible.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  warm  weak  lambs  by  wrapping  them  in  thick 
woolen  cloths  that  have  been  warmed  on  a  stove. 
As  soon  as  one  wrapper  becomes  cool,  another  hot 
from  the  stove  should  succeed  it.  This  is  a  much 
more  effective  way  than  dipping  the  lamb  in  hot  water, 
which  is  sometimes  recommended.  If  the  lamb  is 
not  extremely  weak,  it  may  only  be  required  to  feed 
it  some  of  its  dam's  milk  with  a  spoon.  If  it  does  not 
gain  strength  by  frequent  feeding  of  the  milk  and 
keeping  it  warm,  a  stimulant  such  as  whisky  will  be 
required.  A  weak  lamb  should  not  be  exhausted 
with  efforts  to  hold  it  to  the  teat  and  make  it  suck. 
It  should  be  assisted  gently  and  carefully  to  do  so. 
In  most  instances,  it  will  be  only  necessary  to  hold 
the  lamb  to  the  teat,  and  then,  putting  a  finger  in  its 
mouth,  it  is  easy  to  start  it  sucking  by  substituting 
the  teat.  It  should  be  helped  in  this  way  four  or 
five  times  in  an  hour  until  it  gains  some  strength. 
Unless  the  lamb  is  very  weak,  it  is  not  advisable  to 
turn  the  ewe  on  her  back  for  it.  For  three  days  it 
is  advisable  to  keep  the  ewe  and  the  lamb  by  them- 
selves. This  is  beneficial,  as  they  become  acquainted 
with  each  other,  and  the  lamb  grows  strong  enough 
to  take  care  of  itself  before  being  put  with  the 
others. 

The  division  of  ewes  and  lambs.  —  As  the  lambing 


194  Sheep-Farming 

proceeds,  the  ewes  and  their  lambs  ought  to  be 
classed  into  several  groups.  One  yard  is  required 
for  the  ewes  that  are  heavy  in  lamb,  another  for  the 
ewes  that  have  single  lambs,  and  a  third  for  the  ewes 
that  have  twins.  By  having  them  divided  in  this  way, 
they  may  be  given  better  attention  and  feeding. 

Dry  ewes.  —  It  sometimes  occurs  that  the  ewes 
have  no  milk  for  their  lambs.  This  is  generally  the 
result  of  insufficient  feeding,  though  it  sometimes 
happens  with  ewes  that  are  in  thrifty  condition. 
To  stimulate  the  secretion,  there  is  nothing  better 
than  the  feeding  of  such  foods  as  bran  or  oats  a 
month  previous  to  lambing.  As  a  quick  stimulant, 
the  feeding  of  oatmeal  gruel  or  wheat-flour  gruel  is 
the  most  satisfactory. 

Treatment  of  unkindly  ewes.  —  When  a  ewe  will 
not  allow  her  lamb  to  suck,  she  should  be  held  to 
permit  the  lamb  to  get  milk  when  it  needs  it,  or,  if 
time  cannot  be  taken  for  this,  a  halter  should  be  made 
for  her  and  she  should  be  tied  so  that  she  cannot  butt 
it.  It  is  well  to  make  an  examination  of  the  udder, 
for  it  may  be  that  inflammation  in  that  region  is  the 
cause  of  the  trouble.  A  ewe  may  not  wish  to  own 
her  lamb.  Such  dislike  for  the  lamb  disappears 
if  they  are  kept  together  in  a  pen  for  a  few  days 
before  being  out  with  the  others. 

Care  of  twins.  —  If  the  ewe  is  a  good  milker  and 
the  lambs  are  hearty,  twins  do  not  give  any  more 
trouble  than  single  lambs.     In  the  event  of  a  ewe 


Spring  Management  of  the  Flock  195 

having  twins  and  a  small  quantity  of  milk,  it  would 
be  well  to  transfer  one  of  the  lambs  to  a  ewe  that  has 
only  one  lamb  and  a  bountiful  supply  of  milk.  If 
two  ewes  lamb  at  the  same  time,  it  is  a  very  easy 
matter  to  make  the  transfer  by  rubbing  the  lambs 
together  so  that  they  may  have  the  same  smell. 
It  is  necessary  to  note  that  both  of  the  lambs  in  the 
instance  of  twins  have  their  share  of  the  ewe's  milk. 
When  the  lambs  are  young,  if  one  of  them  is  some- 
what stronger  than  the  other,  it  is  likely  to  obtain 
more  than  its  portion.  To  obviate  this,  the  ewe 
should  be  held  at  times  for  the  weaker  lamb. 

Hand-feeding  lambs.  —  In  raising  lambs  that  have 
lost  their  dams,  it  is  best  to  feed  them  cow's  milk 
from  a  bottle  that  has  a  small  rubber  nipple  attached 
to  it.  A  newly  dropped  lamb  only  requires  two 
teaspoonfuls  at  a  time  given  every  hour.  The  milk 
should  be  fresh  from  the  cow,  at  a  natural  tempera- 
ture. The  lamb  should  be  fed  a  small  quantity, 
and  that  at  frequent  intervals.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
sweeten  the  milk  nor  weaken  it  with  water.  Lambs 
may  be  taught  to  drink  from  a  dipper  by  introducing 
the  rim  of  it  into  their  mouths  and  allowing  them  to 
drink  in  the  customary  manner.  But  the  best  plan 
is  to  feed  them  from  a  bottle  with  a  rubber  nipple. 
Lambs  will  make  good  growth  on  milk,  provided  that 
they  are  fed  regularly  and  only  small  quantities  are 
given  them  frequently.  At  times,  the  lambs  reared 
in  this  manner  are  troubled  with  scours ;    in  such 


196  Sheep-Farming 

cases  the  milk  should  be  boiled  for  a  few  meals.  A 
teaspoonful  or  more  of  limewater  should  also  be 
given  in  the  milk.  If  this  should  fail,  add  a  teaspoon- 
ful of  castor  oil  to  the  milk  as  often  as  may  be 
deemed  necessary. 

Foster  mothers.  —  Among  the  different  ways  on 
inducing  a  ewe  to  own  a  strange  lamb,  the  most 
common  is  to  cover  the  lamb  with  the  skin  of  the 
dead  one.  Another  efficient  means  of  deception  is 
to  rub  some  of  the  milk  of  the  ewe  over  the  lamb. 
The  age  of  the  lamb  that  is  to  be  substituted  should 
be  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  lamb  that  died,  so 
that  it  may  not  be  injuriously  affected  by  the  con- 
dition of  the  ewe's  milk.  If  the  ewe  has  recently 
lambed  and  the  lamb  substituted  is  several  weeks 
old,  scouring  will  follow. 

Feeding  grain  to  lambs.  —  It  is  advisable  to  feed 
grain  to  lambs  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  eat.  If 
the  ewes  are  fed  grain  from  a  low  trough,  the  lambs 
will  begin  to  eat  some  with  their  dams  before  they 
are  two  weeks  old.  As  soon  as  they  begin  to  do 
this,  a  part  of  the  pen  should  be  set  apart  as 
a  feeding  place  for  them.  Shortly  after  lambing 
and  before  the  ewes  are  put  on  pasture,  it  pays 
to  feed  them  grain,  but  the  best  results  in  the 
growth  of  the  lambs  will  be  attained  by  feeding 
direct  to  the  lambs. 

If  the  lambs  are  in  the  field,  a  sheltered  place  where 
the  flock  may  be  in  the  habit  of  gathering  should  be 


Spring  Management  of  the  Flock  197 

selected,  and  a  small  pen  or  creep  may  be  constructed 
for  them. 

Food  previous  to  weaning.  —  For  feeding  lambs  that 
are  to  be  used  for  breeding  purposes,  the  writer  has 
a  preference  for  bran  and  oil  meal.  They  will  make 
more  growth  on  this  than  they  would  if  corn  meal  were 
added  to  the  mixture.  The  latter  would  make  them 
fleshier,  but  would  not  produce  frame  to  the  same 
extent  as  the  other  foods  do.  Oats  are  wholesome,  but 
the  lambs  will  do  better  on  them  after  they  have  been 
weaned.  In  feeding  lambs,  the  aim  should  be  to 
give  them  all  the  food  they  have  the  capacity  to 
consume  without  gorging  them.  That  implies  fre- 
quent feeding  in  small  quantities.  The  details  in 
feeding  young  lambs  are  as  follows :  In  the  morn- 
ing at  six  o'clock  they  are  fed  a  small  quantity  of 
grain  in  the  trough.  After  the  other  sheep  are  fed, 
it  is  noted  if  the  lambs  have  eaten  the  grain  that  was 
given  them,  and  if  so,  more  is  put  into  the  trough. 
At  noon,  they  receive  another  allowance.  In  the 
evening,  they  are  fed  twice  in  the  same  way  as  in 
the  morning,  and  they  are  left  at  night  with  some 
grain  in  their  troughs. 

Quantity  of  grain  to  feed.  —  At  first  lambs  will  take 
but  a  small  quantity  of  grain,  but  as  soon  as  a  few 
of  them  come  to  the  trough  at  your  call,  the  others 
soon  follow  and  the  grain  is  eagerly  eaten.  The  best 
guide  as  to  the  quantity  to  feed  is  the  judgment  of 
the  feeder.     Liberal  feeding  is  the  source  of  liberal 


198  Sheep-Farming 

growth.  It  is  possible  to  overforce  lambs  by  in- 
judicious feeding  with  such  foods  as  corn  meal,  but 
it  is  seldom  that  this  results  from  feeding  an  equal 
mixture  of  bran  and  oil  meal.  When  the  lambs  have 
reached  the  age  of  one  month,  they  will  eat  and  use  to 
advantage  one-half  pound  daily  of  this  latter  mixture. 
Feeding  ewes  that  are  suckling  lambs.  —  If  the  ewes 
are  in  the  shed  when  they  are  suckling  their  lambs, 
it  will  pay  to  feed  them  with  such  foods  as  bran  and 
oats.  When  the  ewes  are  on  good  pasture,  no  ad- 
vantage results  from  feeding  the  ewes  grain.  In  an 
experiment  with  forty  ewes  and  fifty-six  lambs,  the 
writer  found  that  the  lambs  did  not  make  a  greater 
gain  through  feeding  their  dams  grain  when  on  pas- 
ture. The  sheep  were  divided  into  four  lots,  with  ten 
ewes  and  their  fourteen  lambs  in  each.  In  two  of  the 
lots,  the  lambs  were  fed  grain,  and  the  ewes  grain 
and  no  grain.  In  the  other  two  lots,  the  lambs  were 
fed  no  grain,  and  the  ewes  grain  and  no  grain,  re- 
spectively. The  following  statement  will  make  the 
difference  in  the  feeding  clear  :  — 

Lot  I.      Ewes  fed  grain ;  lambs  fed  grain. 
Lot  11.    Ewes  no  grain ;  lambs  fed  grain. 
Lot  III.  Ewes  fed  grain ;  lambs  no  grain. 
Lot  IV.    Ewes  no  grain ;  lambs  no  grain. 

The  ewes  in  lot  I  ate  441  pounds  of  grain,  and  their 
lambs  ate  443.5  pounds  of  the  same  mixture.  In 
lot  II,  where  the  ewes  did  not  receive  any  grain. 


Spring  Management  of  the  Flock  199 

the  lambs  ate  488.75  pounds  of  grain,  and  they 
gained  18.5  pounds  more  than  the  lambs  of  lot  I, 
that,  during  ten  weeks,  gained  432.25  pounds.  The 
only  compensation  for  the  feeding  of  the  grain  to  the 
ewes  was  in  the  fact  that  those  receiving  grain  lost 
in  weight  only  the  total  of  80.9  pounds,  while  those 
in  lot  II  lost  a  total  of  111  pounds  in  ten  weeks. 
The  only  difference  in  the  feeding  of  lots  III  and 
IV  lies  in  the  management  of  the  ewes.  The  ewes 
of  lot  III  ate  583  pounds  of  grain  and  the  lambs 
without  grain  made  exactly  the  same  gain  and  their 
dams  had  no  grain.  The  grain  fed  to  these  sheep 
consisted  of  a  mixture  of  one  part  oil  meal  and  three 
parts  bran  during  the  first  three  weeks  of  the  experi- 
ment, and  one  part  crushed  corn,  one  part  oil  meal, 
and  two  parts  bran  during  the  last  seven  weeks  of 
the  experiment.  In  addition  to  this,  they  had  excel- 
lent pasturage. 

The  ewes  that  are  suckling  lambs  should  have 
3  or  4  pounds  of  roots  or  silage  as  a  part  of  their 
ration.  Either  of  these  will  stimulate  the  flow  of 
milk.  Sweet  and  clean  clover  hay  should  be  given 
them.  The  finer  it  is  in  the  stalk  and  the  more 
heads  it  contains,  the  better  they  like  it. 

Castration  of  lambs.  —  The  safest  method  of  cas- 
tration is  best  performed  when  the  lamb  is  one  to  two 
weeks  old.  If  attempted  before  this  time,  the  tes- 
ticles will  be  found  to  be  small  and  soft,  and  as  a 
result   diflScult   to   remove.     Two    persons   are   re- 


200  Sheep-Farming 

quired.  One  should  hold  the  lamb  tightly  by  gath- 
ering the  four  legs  together  and  pressing  the  lamb 
tightly  against  his  body.  The  operator  taking  hold 
of  the  scrotum  and  pulling  the  skin  free  from  the 
testicles  cuts  it  straight  across  about  an  inch  from 
the  body  of  the  lamb.  The  testicles  will  then  pro- 
trude. It  will  be  noticed  that  there  will  be  a  con- 
striction near  the  end  of  the  testicle.  If  this  is  slit, 
the  testicle  at  once  springs  free  of  the  covering,  and 
it  is  easily  removed  by  pulling  it  out  after  the  slight 
attachment  remaining  at  the  end  has  been  loosened. 
As  much  of  the  cord  should  be  taken  away  as  can  be 
removed  by  pulling  it.  \Mien  the  lambs  are  young 
and  the  testicle  small,  it  should  be  drawn  from  the 
lamb  without  attempting  to  remove  the  outer  cover- 
ing. The  scrotum  should  be  left  open  so  that  fester- 
ing may  not  occur.  The  lambs  that  are  treated 
should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place  for  two  days.  If  in- 
flammation sets  in  and  pus  forms  and  the  lamb  be- 
comes still  worse,  the  part  should  be  dressed  with  lard, 
the  scrotum  opened  and  the  material  that  has 
collected  pressed  out,  and  the  parts  washed  with  an 
antiseptic  solution  such  as  that  made  with  one  part 
of  creolin  to  fifty  of  water.  A  different  method  from 
those  described  is  sometimes  adopted :  the  testicles 
are  pressed  forward  by  the  left  hand  to  the  front  of 
the  scrotum,  and  two  cuts  are  made  opposite  the  tes- 
ticle, and  through  those  the  testicles  are  then  drawn 
out.     This  method  is  objectionable,  as  the  cut  heals 


Spring  Management  of  the  Flock  201 

so  rapidly  that  if  suppuration  begins,  there  is  no 
outlet  for  the  pus  that  collects,  and  as  a  consequence 
inflammation  follows.  It  is  necessary  to  be  careful 
to  remove  both  of  the  testicles  intact,  for  if  this  is 
not  done,  such  a  lamb  will  prove  troublesome  when 
being  fattened  with  others. 

Docking  the  lambs.  —  The  easiest  and  most  agree- 
able way  of  docking  is  to  have  the  lamb  held  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  desirable  for  castration,  and 
when  in  that  position,  the  tail  is  cut  off  with  a  sharp 
knife  one  inch  or  less  from  the  body.  It  will  be 
observed  that  it  is  at  that  distance  that  the  skin  of 
the  body  on  the  under  side  merges  into  the  tail. 
It  is  advisable  to  do  this  as  soon  as  the  lambs  have 
recovered  from  the  effects  of  castration  or  in  the 
instance  of  ewe  lambs  when  they  are  a  week  or  so 
old,  for  the  reason  that  the  tail  thickens  as  they  grow 
older  and  it  becomes  harder  to  locate  a  joint.  If  done 
when  the  lamb  is  not  more  than  a  week  old,  it  will 
not  suffer  from  the  loss  of  blood.  When  lambs  over 
six  months  old  are  to  be  docked,  there  will  be  a  smaller 
loss  of  blood  if  a  string  is  tightly  tied  just  above  the 
joint  at  which  the  tail  is  to  be  cut.  If  the  lambs  are 
in  ordinary  condition  and  not  likely  to  become  weak 
from  the  loss  of  a  small  quantity  of  blood,  they  may  be 
docked  similarly  to  the  method  described  for  younger 
lambs.  Rather  than  dock  lambs  in  the  hot  season 
when  flies  are  numerous,  it  would  be  better  to  let 
them  go  until  the  cooler  days  in  the  fall. 


CHAPTER  X 
SUMMER  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FLOCK 

During  the  summer  months,  the  flock  is  too  often 
completely  neglected  after  the  shearing  has  been 
accomplished.  As  a  rule,  the  sheep  are  allowed  to 
run  in  some  large  field  where  water  is  available  to 
them,  and  they  are  left  entirely  to  themselves  during 
this  season.  While  it  is  a  time  during  which  the 
sheep  are  well  prepared  to  care  for  themselves,  yet 
there  are  a  few  details  requiring  attention  that  add 
greatly  to  their  thrift  and  comfort. 

Ordinarily  all  the  ewes  with  lambs  may  run  in  one 
lot  after  turning  to  pasture.  Ewes  not  having  pro- 
duced lambs  are  usually  disposed  of  before  summer. 
Ewes  having  lost  their  lambs  and  which  it  is  desired 
to  retain  to  breed  again  may  run  with  the  nursing 
ewes,  but  if  the  size  of  the  flock  justifies  two  divisions, 
such  as  dry  ewes  may  run  with  the  yearlings,  and  if 
these  are  well  wintered,  a  fair  pasture  will  carry  them 
into  the  fall  in  good  shape.  The  possibility  of  the 
ewes  breeding  during  summer  renders  it  unadvisable 
to  leave  the  ram  with  the  main  flock.  He  will  usu- 
ally be  contented  in  a  separate  lot  until  fall,  but  if 
not,  one  or  two  other  sheep  with  him  will  insure 
quietude. 

202 


Summer  Management  of  the  Flock  203 

Salt  and  sulphur.  —  It  is  advisable  to  have  places 
in  the  pasture  or  under  shelter  where  the  sheep  may 
secure  salt  and  sulphur  at  any  time.  This  is  probably 
the  best  time  to  feed  the  sheep  sulphur,  as  they  are 
less  liable  at  this  season  to  contract  colds  from  eating 
much  sulphur.  In  the  spring  and  winter,  there  is  a 
likelihood  of  contracting  colds  from  eating  it,  but 
this  is  not  likely  to  occur  during  the  summer  months. 
Rock  salt  may  be  used,  but  ordinary  coarse  salt  is 
generally  preferred.  The  sulphur  should  be  mixed 
with  the  salt  in  sufficient  quantities  to  give  it  a  slight 
yellowish  tinge.  When  the  salt  is  fed  in  a  granular 
form,  the  sheep  will  eat  more  of  it  than  if  it  is  given 
them  in  the  rock  condition.  The  salt  should  be  be- 
fore them  at  all  times.  If  it  is  only  given  them  at  rare 
intervals,  they  are  apt  to  take  too  much  when  they 
have  access  to  it.  The  plan  followed  by  some  shep- 
herds is  to  scatter  salt  around  the  weeds  in  the  sheep 
pasture  to  induce  the  sheep  to  eat  out  the  weeds. 

Fresh  water  required.  —  While  sheep  possess  the 
ability  to  do  without  water  with  less  annoyance  than 
other  classes  of  stock,  yet  it  certainly  adds  to  their 
comfort  and  health  to  have  access  to  pure,  fresh  water 
at  all  times.  Especially  is  this  true  during  the  hot, 
dry  months  of  July  and  August.  If  there  is  not  any 
running  water  in  the  pasture,  they  should  be  allowed 
to  obtain  well  water  at  least  once  a  day. 

Pasturing  horses  with  sheep.  —  It  is  most  unad- 
visable  to  pasture  horses  in  the  same  field  with  the 


204  Sheep-Farming 

breeding  flock.  There  are  times  when  the  horses 
feel  inclined  to  rush  about,  and  at  such  times  some 
of  the  sheep  are  almost  certain  to  be  injured. 

Application  of  tar.  —  During  the  hot,  dry  season 
when  the  flies  torment  the  sheep  a  great  deal,  it  is  advi- 
sable to  coat  the  nostrils  of  all  the  sheep  with  pine  tar. 
The  best  plan  is  to  warm  the  tar  until  it  becomes 
fluid,  and  then,  with  a  stick  that  has  a  small  piece  of 
cloth  wound  around  it,  apply  the  tar  to  the  nostrils. 
This  wards  off  the  attacks  of  the  gadfly.  This  fly 
deposits  the  larva  or  living  worm  in  the  nostrils  of  the 
sheep ;  in  a  short  time,  the  larva  passes  up  the  nos- 
trils and  lodges  in  the  nasal  sinuses.  During  the 
winter  it  develops,  and  the  irritation  that  it  causes 
produces  the  running  at  the  nose,  which  is  common 
among  so  many  flocks  in  the  w^inter  season.  The 
larva  when  developed  is  expelled  by  the  sneezing  of 
the  sheep,  especially  when  grain  feed  is  given  dry.  It 
goes  into  the  manure,  then  into  the  chrysalis  state, 
and  finally  emerges  in  June  or  July  as  a  mature  fly. 

Shade  in  pastures.  —  During  the  summer  season, 
the  sheep  should  have  some  shade  in  their  pastures. 
If  they  have  access  to  a  small  grove  of  trees,  this  is  all 
that  is  needed,  but  where  they  cannot  have  this,  a 
cheap  shelter  may  easily  be  constructed  by  means 
of  boards.  During  the  hot  season,  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  sheep  feed  mostly  in  the  morning  and  in 
the  evening,  while  in  the  intervening  time  they  are 
lying  down  in  the  shade  chewing  their  cuds.     The 


Summer  Management  of  the  Flock  205 

feature  of  this  season  that  seems  to  affect  the  sheep 
most  is  the  burning  noonday  heat,  and  if  they  have 
any  access  to  shelter  under  trees  or  cheaply  con- 
structed sheds,  they  suffer  no  annoyance.  The  gad- 
fly is  generally  busiest  just  before  sunset. 

Changing  the  ^pastures.  —  Instead  of  giving  the 
flock  the  run  of  a  very  large  pasture,  better  results 
can  be  obtained  by  limiting  them  to  a  small  acreage 
at  different  times.  They  like  a  change,  and  by  ar- 
ranging the  pasture  into  fields  of  fair  size,  the  pas- 
turage may  be  better  maintained.  In  a  large  pasture, 
the  sheep  form  the  habit  of  grazing  in  certain  places, 
and  these  they  will  eat  very  close,  while  neglecting 
the  rest,  as  soon  as  they  have  access  to  these  places 
that  seem  to  suit  them  best.  Grazing  in  its  native 
habitat,  the  sheep  roams  over  considerable  territory, 
and  under  farm  conditions  is  benefited  by  frequent 
changes  more  than  is  any  other  farm  stock.  Where 
permanent  pastures  are  the  sole  reliance,  there  is 
danger  in  all  the  central  and  eastern  states  from  the 
stomach  worm.  The  eggs  are  left  on  the  ground  by 
infected  sheep  and  taken  in  by  the  lambs  when 
grazing.  The  infection  is  seldom  troublesome  to 
the  ewes. 

Guarding  against  worms. — Infection  of  the  lambs  is 
to  be  avoided  by  allowing  them  to  graze  only  on  ground 
that  has  been  cultivated  since  having  been  passed  over 
by  infected  animals.  When  this  is  not  convenient, 
recourse  is  sometimes  had  to  the  plan  of  keeping 


206  Sheep-Farming 

the  lambs  all  the  time  in  the  shed  and  bare  lots,  where 
there  is  no  means  of  the  eggs  being  taken  in.  The 
ewes  run  on  the  pastures  and  come  in  to  nurse  the 
lambs  two  or  three  times  each  day.  By  feeding  the 
lamb  a  tempting  grain  ration,  little  trouble  is  ex- 
perienced in  separating  them  when  the  ewes  are  to 
return  to  the  pasture.  Such  lambs  can  be  fed  to 
carry  along  as  fast  as  desired  and  can  be  weaned 
without  serious  setback,  and  in  the  fall  can  be  run 
upon  forage  crops  sown  in  summer  upon  fresh  un- 
tainted ground.  This  plan  requires  considerable 
attention  to  the  flock,  but  has  worked  successfully. 
Summer  grazing  crops,  —  It  is  likely  to  be  more  satis- 
factory to  go  a  step  farther  and  provide  a  rotation  of 
grazing  crops  to  carry  the  ewes  and  lambs  from  the 
first  of  the  season  until  weaning.  After  that,  the  ewes 
can  go  on  old  grass  land  and  the  lambs  to  freshly 
seeded  land  or  to  other  green  crops.  This  is  the  plan 
of  summer  keep  on  British  farms  that  are  stocked  very 
heavily  with  sheep.  As  well  as  insuring  continued 
thrift  for  the  lambs,  it  requires  a  much  smaller  acreage 
than  is  needed  if  only  grass  is  used.  It  involves  some 
extra  labor  in  preparing  the  ground  and  seeding  at  fre- 
quent intervals  to  insure  a  succession  of  fresh  grazing, 
but  it  is  only  by  this  plan  that  intensive  farming  with 
sheep  is  likely  to  be  really  profitable.  As  an  offset 
to  the  crop  sowing  and  moving  of  the  sheep,  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  the  economy  in  ha\^ng  the 
crop    harvested    without    labor.     The    plan    is    not 


Summer  Management  of  the  Flock  207 

likely  to  be  practical  unless  the  flock  is  of  sufficient 
size  to  justify  its  having  the  first  call  upon  the  time 
of  one  man  even  during  the  summer.  It  is  the 
smaller  flocks  that  stand  as  a  side  issue  and  are  turned 
into  a  regular  pasture  from  spring  until  fall  that  be- 
come unhealthy  and  unprofitable. 

To  secure  the  greatest  use  of  the  grazing  crop,  the 
English  shepherd  sets  light  hurdles  to  confine  the 
flock  to  a  small  area  until  it  is  closely  eaten.  These 
are  advanced  as  necessary^  and  narrow  openings  allow 
the  lambs  to  run  through  to  the  new  ground  ahead 
of  the  ewes.  They  may  be  fed  grain  here,  also,  if  it 
is  desired  to  finish  them  quickly. 

It  is  possible  to  carry  a  flock  from  spring  until 
winter  upon  sown  crops.  One  piece  of  land  sown  to 
rye  will  furnish  fall  and  spring  pasture  and  can  be 
reseeded  to  furnish  oats  and  peas  later  or  a  fall  crop 
of  rape.  Early  sown  oats  or  oats  and  field  peas  can 
be  ready  after  the  rye  is  gone,  and  a  new  clover  field 
may  be  used  before  the  second  crop  is  ready.  Spring 
and  summer  pasture  is  sometimes  furnished  by  a 
stand  of  clover  seeded  at  the  end  of  cultivation  of  a 
corn  crop.  Rape  sown  with  small  grains  furnishes 
good  fall  pasture  in  some  seasons.  There  is  a  dan- 
ger of  its  making  growth  enough  to  be  troublesome 
in  the  grain  harvest.  The  same  crop  can  be  sown 
between  the  corn  rows,  or  it  can  be  grown  separately 
for  earlier  feeding.  Early  sown  rape  is  ordinarily 
ready  for  grazing  two  months  after  it  comes  up. 


208  Sheep-Farming 

By  seeding  small  pieces  at  different  dates,  a  succes- 
sion of  crops  can  be  secured  to  furnish  feed  for  a 
long  period.  The  most  satisfactory  results  from  the 
use  of  rape  are  secured  when  it  is  seeded  on  well- 
prepared  rich  ground.  On  most  soils  it  does  as  well 
drilled  in  rows  30  inches  apart  on  the  flat  at  the  rate 
of  2  pounds  per  acre  as  when  planted  on  ridges. 
Grown  in  rows,  the  soil  can  be  kept  stirred  and  a 
large  crop  secured ;  also  there  is  less  waste  than  there 
is  in  grazing  the  crop  sown  broadcast.  A  good  stand 
of  rape  well  grow^n  has  been  shown  at  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station  to  be  sufficient  to  carry  twenty 
lambs  for  two  months  on  one  acre.  These  lambs 
were  also  on  a  medium  grain  ration.  For  ewes  with 
lambs  two  or  three  months  old,  neither  receiving 
grain,  it  would  be  well  to  plan  at  the  rate  of  an 
acre  per  month  for  twenty-five  head  of  ewes  and 
lambs  combined. 

If  it  is  desired  to  cut  the  crop  for  feeding,  it  should 
be  cut  about  4  inches  from  the  ground.  When  cut 
at  this  height,  or  when  it  is  not  grazed  too  closely  and 
the  weather  is  not  very  dry,  it  will  make  a  growth 
to  furnish  considerable  feed  from  the  second  crop. 
Some  care  is  necessary  in  getting  sheep  accustomed 
to  rape.  It  is  not  safe  to  give  free  access  to  it  when 
coming  from  a  short  pasture,  and  they  should  not 
be  turned  into  it  at  first  without  having  their  stom- 
achs partly  filled  from  some  other  pasture. 

Oats,  peas,  and  vetches  are  other  crops  that  can 


Summer  Management  of  the  Flock  209 

be  used  to  maintain  the  supply  of  summer  feed. 
Cabbage  affords  a  large  amount  of  the  best  of  feed, 
and  when  it  can  be  raised  and  fed  in  a  suitable 
place,  is  a  very  valuable  feed. 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  forage  crops. 
It  can  be  used  to  carry  sheep  all  through  the  season 
or  for  use  when  none  of  the  other  crops  is  ready. 
If  it  is  to  be  used  as  one  of  several  crops  for  such  use, 
it  is  likely  to  be  much  more  satisfactory  to  cut  it 
and  feed  it  green  on  other  ground.  By  carefully 
getting  sheep  accustomed  to  running  on  alfalfa  and 
having  a  clean  pasture  to  use  in  conjunction  with  it, 
some  flockmasters  get  along  with  little  loss.  This, 
however,  is  when  it  is  used  for  some  length  of  time, 
and  not  when  the  sheep  are  being  changed  from  one 
crop  to  another. 

Weaning.  —  There  is  considerable  variation  in  the 
ages  at  which  lambs  are  wearied,  but  at  four  months 
of  age  is  the  standard  time.  It  is  not  often  considered 
necessary  to  take  out  the  older  ones  first,  though  if 
some  of  the  lambs  are  much  younger  than  the  others, 
it  may  be  advisable  to  leave  them  with  their  dams 
after  the  older  ones  are  weaned.  With  good  fall 
management  to  insure  a  short  lambing  season,  the 
lambs  are  all  ready  for  weaning  at  the  same  time 
and  the  ewes  uniformly  prepared  for  breeding  and 
another  short  lambing  time.  Weaning  may  be  done 
at  ten  or  twelve  weeks,  though  such  is  possible  only 
when  there  is  plenty  of  good  green  feed  available 


210  Sheep-Farming 

for  the  lambs.  If,  when  the  lambs  are  this  age,  it  is 
not  convenient  for  them  to  have  access  to  grass  land 
uninfected  with  stomach  worms,  part  of  each  day, 
when  rape  or  alfalfa  is  furnishing  the  grazing,  they 
can  be  weaned,  and  the  ewes  alone  allowed  to  use  the 
old  pastures  that  are  scanty  or  unsafe  for  lambs. 
The  lambs  can  then  be  given  some  grain  feed  or 
furnished  cut  forage  the  first  part  of  the  day,  to 
insure  against  bloating  when  on  the  other  crops. 

Lambs  dropped  in  February  can  be  made  to  weigh 
60  pounds  in  May  and,  at  the  price  usually  obtain- 
able up  to  that  time,  bring  more  than  if  carried  to 
greater  weights  and  sold  later  in  the  season.  The 
earlier  they  can  be  made  heavy  and  fat  enough 
to  market,  the  greater  the  advantage,  and  grain  feed- 
ing at  this  time  is  always  well  repaid. 

When  lambs  are  marketed  at  around  three  months 
of  age  or  separated  from  the  ewes  for  other  reasons 
at  that  age,  there  is  more  danger  of  trouble  with  the 
ewes  than  when  they  are  kept  in  milk  a  longer  time. 
Under  the  English  system  of  hurdling  on  grazing 
crops  and  letting  the  lambs  run  ahead  of  the  ewes, 
weaning  can  be  done  gradually  with  advantage  to 
both  the  lambs  and  their  mothers.  The  lambs  have 
their  grain  trough  in  the  fresh  grazing  in  front  of 
the  hurdles  that  keep  the  ewes  back.  \Miile  the 
lambs  are  in  front,  the  ewes  are  removed  to  shorter 
and  drier  pasture.  The  length  of  time  away  is 
increased  each  day.     With  the  shorter  and   drier 


Summer  Management  of  the  Flock  211 

feed,  the  milk  supply  is  diminished  and  the  lambs 
take  more  feed  and  experience  minimum  effects 
from  the  change. 

Whether  separated  abruptly  or  gradually,  special 
provision  should  be  made  to  have  the  lambs  feeding 
well.  When  this  is  done  and  the  lambs  remain  in 
the  place  they  are  accustomed  to  while  the  ewes 
are  removed  out  of  their  hearing,  there  need  be  but 
slight  interruption  to  growth. 

In  any  case,  the  ewes  need  to  be  kept  on  shorter 
feed  to  check  the  milk  flow.  Hand-milking  of  some 
ewes  is  sometimes  necessary  to  prevent  spoiled 
udders.  Pasture  suitable  for  ewes  being  dried  up 
is  not  ordinarily  hard  to  obtain  in  July  or  August. 
If  the  lambs  are  weaned  early,  the  ewes  have  a  good 
deal  of  time  in  which  they  are  not  producers,  and  the 
pastures  can  be  stocked  heavily  to  keep  down  the 
cost  of  carrying  them.  Considerable  feed  is  gener- 
ally furnished  by  the  waste  in  small  grain  fields,  and 
as  breeding  time  approaches  better  feeding  is  neces- 
sary. 

Lambs  that  are  to  be  fattened  in  winter  will  prob- 
ably not  require  grain  feeding  when  weaned,  but 
that  will  depend  upon  the  other  feed  they  are  receiv- 
ing. At  that  age  they  make  the  fullest  use  of  feed 
and  grow  more  economically  than  they  can  when 
they  are  older.  They  can  be  kept  doing  well  on 
rape  and  clover  until  winter,  with  grain  or  good  hay 
furnished  as  the  season  advances,  so  that  when  taken 


212  Sheep-Farming 

to  winter  quarters,  they  are  accustomed  to  the  feeds 
that  must  be  used  there. 

Ewe  lambs  to  be  kept  for  breeders  will  do  well 
enough  under  the  same  treatment  until  the  finishing 
for  market  is  begun.  If  ram  lambs  are  kept,  they 
may  run  with  the  ewe  lambs  some  weeks  after  wean- 
ing, but  it  is  preferable  that  they  should  be  separated 
at  the  same  time.  "VMiether  to  be  sold  as  lambs  or 
carried  into  yearhng  form,  the  rams  require  grain 
through  the  fall  to  secure  full  development,  without 
which  rams  of  any  age  are  poor  sellers. 

Time  for  shearing.  —  Shearing  may  be  discussed 
as  a  part  of  either  spring  or  summer  management. 
The  time  at  which  it  may  best  be  done  depends  upon 
location,  housing  facilities,  and  time  of  lambing  for 
breeding  ewes.  There  may  be  actual  losses  or  seri- 
ous setbacks  for  some  sheep  if  the  wool  is  removed 
early  and  warm  quarters  not  pro\'ided.  Fattening 
sheep  thrive  especially  well  when  relieved  of  their 
fleeces  and  can  be  penned  more  closely  so  that  there 
is  no  particular  expense  or  difficulty  in  affording 
necessary  warmth  and  shelter.  Wooled  sheep  usu- 
ally sell  on  the  market  at  a  price  that  takes  into  ac- 
count the  value  of  the  fleece  on  the  basis  of  the  wool 
market  at  the  time.  If  one  prefers  to  wait  for  a 
change  in  the  wool  market,  he  should  shear  before 
shipping.  There  is  another  advantage  in  that  a 
greater  number  of  shorn  sheep  than  of  wooled  ones 
can  be  shipped  in  a  car. 


Summer  Management  of  the  Flock  213 

There  is  not  much  relation  between  time  of  shear- 
ing and  quality  of  wool  except  as  the  sheep  may  be 
in  a  poorer  or  better  condition  at  a  later  time. 
Breeding  ewes  are  likely  to  yield  sounder  and  evener 
fleeces  before  lambing  time.  After  the  usual  lamb- 
ing time,  however,  the  fleece  will  be  of  greater  length 
and  weight,  and  the  oil  more  abundant  in  warmer 
weather.  Abundant  oil  or  yolk  gives  added  weight 
to  a  fleece,  but  no  greater  actual  value.  In  farming 
sections,  small  lots  of  wool  are  generally  bought  at  a 
flat  rate,  and  the  actual  value  on  a  scoured  basis  not 
computed  by  the  buyer,  as  is  done  when  large  lots 
are  appraised. 

Sheep  shorn  both  in  the  spring  and  fall  produce 
a  greater  weight  of  wool  than  if  shorn  but  once,  but 
the  shorter  staple  has  a  lower  value  and  there  is  no 
real  gain.  When  the  summer  wool  gathers  more 
dirt  and  foreign  matter  than  does  the  winter  growth, 
fall  shearing  gives  a  short  but  cleaner  and  more 
valuable  spring  clip,  which  is  not  deteriorated  by 
having  in  it  the  foreign  matter  of  the  fall  clip.  This 
applies  in  sections  of  dry  summers  and  mild  winter 
seasons. 

Manner  of  shearing.  —  The  things  to  be  aimed  at  in 
removing  the  fleece  are  quiet  and  quick  work,  to 
avoid  injury  to  the  sheep,  and  keeping  the  fleece  in 
an  attractive  form.  Careless  shearers  allow  the 
fleece  to  be  torn  apart  by  the  struggling  of  the  sheep, 
and  what  are  called  second  cuts  greatly  impair  the 


214  Sheep-Farming 

marketable  value  of  wool.  Second  cuts  are  the 
result  of  not  cutting  close  to  the  body.  At  one  part 
of  the  stroke  of  the  shears  or  clippers,  cutting  is  done 
close  to  the  skin,  while  at  the  other  end  of  the  stroke 
the  blades  are  cutting  so  as  to  leave  a  quarter  or  a 
half  inch  of  wool  next  to  the  skin.  This  makes  a 
shorter  staple  at  such  places,  and  if,  as  often  happens, 
the  shearer  returns  and  clips  the  short  wool  previ- 
ously run  over,  that  part  has  a  low  value  because  of 
its  insufficient  length  to  be  used  in  the  factory  along 
with  the  rest  of  the  fleece. 

Washing  before  shearing.  —  The  custom  of  washing 
before  shearing  is  now  practically  obsolete.  Careful 
washing  does  remove  dirt  and  gives  a  cleaner  wool. 
At  the  same  time  the  oil  is  removed,  though  if  ten 
days  of  warm  weather  intervene  between  washing 
and  shearing,  the  fleece  will  have  its  normal  weight. 
Nowadays  shearing  is  usually  done  too  early  in  the 
season  to  permit  of  washing  sheep  with  safety,  and 
it  is  much  better  to  prevent  dirt  and  chaff  from  get- 
ting into  the  wool  in  the  first  place,  by  being  careful 
in  feeding  and  bedding  and  having  properly  con- 
structed feed  racks. 

Place  for  shearing.  —  Shearing  should  be  done 
on  a  platform  of  sufficient  size  to  prevent  the  shorn 
wool  from  getting  into  the  dirt,  or  about  10  feet 
square.  The  floor  of  a  barn  is  a  suitable  place,  as 
far  as  keeping  the  wool  clean  is  concerned.  The 
shearing  platform  should  be  kept  swept,  and  as  each 


Summer  Management  of  the  Flock  215 

sheep  is  brought  on  and  turned  up  for  shearing,  all 
straw  and  dirt  adhering  should  be  removed.  Most 
buyers  will  make  it  to  the  advantage  of  the  wool- 
grower  to  separate  the  tags  or  dung  locks  and  sell 
them  separately  so  that  no  allowance  need  be  made 
for  them  in  estimating  the  value  of  the  fleeces. 

The  shearing  machine  has  almost  altogether  super- 
seded the  hand  shears.  It  is  much  easier  for  the 
shearer  and,  except  on  very  wrinkly  or  heavy  folded 
Merinos,  is  much  faster.  Machine  shearing  also 
makes  it  possible  to  cut  closer  to  the  skin  and  thus 
get  more  wool  as  well  as  having  a  smoother  looking 
sheep  than  is  turned  out  by  any  but  the  most  care- 
ful hand  shearers.  The  hand-power  machine  is  not 
expensive  and  unless  more  than  100  sheep  are  kept, 
a  power  machine  is  not  likely  to  be  economical, 
though  it  is  wholly  practical  for  a  number  of  sheep 
owners  to  combine  in  buying  a  power  shearing  outfit 
for  their  joint  use  and  perhaps  for  shearing  for  other 
owners. 

The  accompanying  figures  (Figs.  37-47,  Pis. 
XV-XX)  show  one  expert's  way  of  taking  off  a  fleece 
and  his  way  of  handling  his  sheep.  There  is  great 
variation  in  the  way  good  shearers  commence  on  a 
sheep  and  in  the  way  they  go  from  one  part  of  the 
body  to  the  other.  The  system  shown  in  the  illus- 
trations leaves  the  fleece  in  good  condition  and  calls 
for  a  minimum  of  handling  of  the  sheep. 

Tying  the  fleece.  —  Special  types  of  boxes  were 


216  Sheep-Farming 

once  in  use  for  rolling  and  tying  fleeces  in  a  very 
attractive  form.  The  market  now  prefers  a  fleece 
tied  more  loosely  (Fig.  48,  PL  XX).  A  neat  job  may 
be  made  by  spreading  the  fleece  on'  the  floor,  flesh 
side  down,  then  folding  the  sides  in  and  rolling  from 
neck  to  other  end  and  tying  firmly  with  hard,  smooth 
twine  wrapped  around  once  each  way  and  tied  se- 
curely. Sisal  or  any  other  twine  from  which  fibers 
get  into  the  wool  is  very  objectionable.  These  vege- 
table fibers  cannot  be  separated  from  the  wool, 
and  being  of  a  different  nature  do  not  absorb  dyes, 
and  this  makes  it  impossible  to  use  wool  tied  with 
such  twine  except  for  cheap  fabrics  in  which  the 
uncolored  fibers  are  not  so  seriously  objectionable. 
The  harder  twines  are  likely  to  come  untied  and  allow 
the  fleece  to  fall  apart.  There  are  twines  made  of 
paper  especially  for  tying  wool;  "India"  three-ply, 
size  No.  4|,  is  well  adapted  for  the  purpose. 

Wool  can  be  stored  with  very  small  probability  of 
deterioration  or  loss  of  weight.  Any  place  that  is 
clean  and  dry  is  suitable  for  storing,  and  even  if 
stored  for  but  a  short  time,  it  is  best  to  pack  the 
fleeces  in  the  regular  sacks  made  for  the  purpose. 

Dipping.  —  Ordinarily,  sheep  require  dipping  at 
least  once  a  year,  and  twice  is  often  necessary.  For 
scab  or  other  diseases  more  frequent,  special  dipping 
may  be  needed,  as  discussed  in  Chapter  XV.  It  is 
seldom  safe  to  forego  dipping  the  entire  flock  shortly 
after  shearing.     At  this  time,  most  of  the  ticks  are 


Summer  Management  of  the  Flock  217 

on  the  lambs  and  are  a  handicap  and  annoyance  to 
them.  Less  dip  is  required  when  the  older  sheep 
are  short  of  wool.  With  lambs  less  than  three 
weeks  old,  there  is  a  danger  of  disowning  by  their 
mothers  on  account  of  the  dip  destroying  the  scent 
by  which  the  lamb  is  recognized.  If  this  happens, 
the  lamb  is  not  allowed  to  suck,  and  some  trouble  is 
necessary  to  effect  a  reconciliation.  Unless  the  flock 
is  wholly  free  from  ticks,  a  fall  dipping  is  desirable. 
This  should  be  done  before  the  weather  is  cold  enough 
to  render  the  sheep  liable  to  cold. 

Lambs  can  be  easily  dipped  in  a  barrel.  A  wide 
trough  may  be  utilized  for  larger  sheep,  but  care  and 
patience  must  be  exercised  to  make  sure  that  the 
dip  reaches  all  parts  of  the  body. 

A  swimming-bath  of  the  following  dimensions  will 
be  found  most  suitable  for  a  flock  of  several  hundred ; 
it  can  either  be  made  of  pine  boarding  lined  with 
zinc  or  of  concrete.  Let  the  length  of  tank  be  20 
feet,  and  2  feet  wide  at  top,  narrowing  to  1  foot 
at  bottom.  The  tank  is  5  feet  deep  at  one  end,  the 
depth  extending  to  one-third  of  its  length.  The  bot- 
tom then  stands  up  from  this  point  to  the  top  of  the 
end ;  it  is  on  this  slope  that  the  sheep  leave  the  vat, 
and  ought  to  be  battened  every  6  or  8  inches, 
so  as  to  make  egress  easy  for  the  sheep  into  the 
dripper.  A  pen  to  hold  the  required  number  of 
sheep  for  dipping  is  built  at  the  deep  end  of  the 
tank,  with  the  floor  raised  2  feet,  forming  a  drop 


218  Sheep-Farming 

into  the  tank  by  means  of  an  opening  in  the  side 
next  it,  and  about  the  same  width.  At  the  other 
end  is  the  dripper  of  the  same  size  as  that  made 
for  holding  the  sheep  before  dipping.  Its  floor 
must  be  sloping,  so  that  the  dip  coming  from  the 
sheep  will  drain  back  into  the  tank. 


CHAPTER  XI 
WOOL 

Breeders  of  fine-wool  sheep  study  the  fleeces  of 
their  animals  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  attention 
to  carcass  points.  Raisers  of  mutton  sheep  cannot 
afford  to  neglect  the  wool-bearing  qualities  of  their 
sheep.  A  good  deal  can  be  done  to  increase  the 
amount  and  value  of  the  wool  produced  by  mutton 
sheep  without  impairing  their  usefulness  as  meat 
producers.  In  addition  to  this,  certain  qualities  of 
the  fleece  are  associated  with  general  health  and 
vigor  and  adaptability  to  farm  conditions.  One  of 
the  most  important  requirements  in  any  fleece  is 
density. 

Density,  —  The  density  of  the  fleece  means  the 
closeness  of  the  fibers.  Technically  it  means  the 
number  of  fibers  that  grow  on  a  square  inch.  Den- 
sity is  not  only  of  value  to  secure  a  heavy  fleece,  but 
froni  a  breeder's  point  of  view,  its  chief  importance 
lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  more  protection  to  the  sheep 
than  a  fleece  that  is  open.  Not  only  is  a  sheep  with 
a  loose,  open  fleece  more  liable  to  contract  cold  from 
exposure  to  rain  or  wind,  but  it  is  also  more  apt  to 
yield  a  dirty  fleece,  as  the  loose  fleece  catches  the 
dirt  and  dust  and  pieces  of  hay  and  straw.     From 

219 


220  Sheep-Farming 

the  shepherd's  point  of  view,  the  denseness  of  the 
fleece  is  its  leading  feature,  for  it  will  be  found  that 
those  animals  with  dense,  close  fleeces  are  less  subject 
to  such  diseases  as  catarrh,  running  at  the  nose,  or 
scouring.  When  a  sheep  experiences  a  chill,  it  at 
once  affects  the  circulation  and  sends  the  blood  to 
the  internal  organs,  and  inflammation  or  scouring 
results.  This  is  why  sheep  that  have  open  fleeces 
are  more  subject  to  such  diseases  than  those  that 
have  dense  fleeces.  Wool  is  one  of  the  best  non- 
conductors of  heat  that  we  have,  and  when  it  is  on  a 
sheep  in  the  form  of  a  dense  fleece,  it  gives  them  the 
greatest  possible  protection  from  exposure.  Further- 
more, if  the  fleece  is  not  dense,  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible for  the  fiber  to  be  sound,  —  that  is,  free  from 
weak  spots.  When  a  sheep  has  been  badly  chilled 
or  has  become  sick  in  any  way,  so  as  to  cause  the 
pores  of  the  skin  to  contract,  a  break  or  shrinkage 
occurs  in  the  fiber  at  that  point.  The  wool  on  a 
sheep  grows  from  a  small  sac  in  the  skin,  and  it  passes 
away  from  the  skin  through  a  small  opening  that 
may  be  easily  contracted  or  expanded,  according  to 
different  influences.  The  influences  are  various, 
and  for  that  reason  it  is  important  that  the  sheep 
be  covered  w4th  a  fleece  that  is  so  dense  as  not  to 
be  affected  much  by  external  conditions. 

Length  of  staple.  —  The  length  of  the  staple  is  an 
important  feature,  both  from  a  commercial  point  of 
view  and  from  the  shepherd's  standpoint.      Wools 


Wool  221 

are  generally  known  as  short-stapled  or  the  carding 
wools,  which  are  used  for  woolen  cloth,  or  long- 
stapled  or  combing  wools,  which  are  used  for  worsted 
cloth.  The  long-stapled  wools  include  the  Lincoln, 
Leicester,  Cotswold,  Romney  Marsh,  and  Black- 
face or  Highland.  The  short-stapled  include  all 
the  Downs  (Southdown,  Hampshire,  Suffolk,  Shrop- 
shire, Oxford)  and  the  Cheviot  and  Welsh.  The 
manufacturer  of  woolens  desires  a  short-stapled  wool, 
for  such  a  wool  has  better  felting  qualities  and  usu- 
ally more  serrations  or  spirals  than  the  long  wools. 
In  manufacturing  woolens  into  yarns,  the  fibers  are 
transversely  disposed  to  the  axis  or  length  of  the 
thread.  In  yarns  of  this  nature  this  feature  is 
termed  "pile."  The  points  projecting  from  the 
center  should  be  numerous,  so  that  in  felting  the 
fabric  unites  and  also  when  the  cloth  comes  to  be 
finished,  it  will  appear  on  top  like  short  fur.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  worsted  goods  the  object  is  to 
stretch  the  fibers  and  lay  them  parallel  with  each 
other,  and  this  produces  a  yarn  even,  strong,  and 
composed  of  as  fine  fibers  as  possible.  In  this  pro- 
cess of  manufacture,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  length 
and  strength  of  a  fiber  includes  its  most  valuable 
characteristics. 

Examining  the  fleece.  —  In  examining  and  valuing 
the  fleece,  the  chief  points  to  consider  are  the  quantity, 
quality,  and  condition.  The  quantity  is  determined 
by  the  length  and  density.     Quality  of  wool  depends 


222  Sheep-Farming 

upon  fineness,  luster,  and  brightness.  Condition 
refers  to  soundness,  purity,  and  oil  or  yolk.  The 
best  method  of  studying  the  nature  of  the  fleece  on 
the  sheep  is  to  open  it  first  just  over  the  shoulder. 
In  this  region  the  finest  of  the  wool  is  found.  By 
using  the  hands  in  a  flat  position  instead  of  sticking 
the  ends  of  the  fingers  into  the  wool,  the  fleece  may 
be  parted  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner.  After 
looking  at  the  wool  and  the  skin  in  this  region,  the 
thigh  should  be  the  next  place  of  examination,  for 
here  grows  the  poorest  and  coarsest  wool  of  the  whole 
fleece.  Then  the  covering  of  the  wool  on  the  belly 
also  demands  notice,  for  very  often  sheep  are  quite 
poor  in  this  region,  making  the  wool  light  and  indi- 
cating a  lack  of  constitution.  By  partially  closing 
the  hand  upon  the  surface  of  the  fleece,  one  may 
readily  judge  the  density. 

Fineness.  —  Ordinarily,  fineness  will  be  in  propor- 
tion to  density,  but  among  dense  fleeces  there  may 
be  a  wide  variation  in  fineness.  When  the  fleece  is 
parted  at  the  side  of  the  shoulder,  the  extent  to  which 
the  fibers  appear  to  be  closely  packed  together  shows 
the  fineness.  "Crimp"  is  a  term  used  to  designate 
the  waves  or  folds  that  are  to  be  seen  all  along  the 
length  of  the  fibers.  Fineness  is  proportionate  to 
the  closeness  of  these  folds.  In  coarse-wooled  sheep 
they  are  little  more  than  waves,  while  in  the  finer 
breeds  the  crimp  shows  as  folds  at  right  angles  to 
the  length  of  the  fiber  and  very  close  together. 


Wool  223 

Wool  from  a  sheep  that  has  been  sick  or  is  unsound 
from  any  other  cause  can  be  seen  to  have  a  less  close 
crimp  in  the  part  of  the  fiber  that  is  weak.  In 
stretching  locks  of  such  unsound  wool,  it  will  be  found 
that  they  always  break  at  the  same  place. 

Shrinkage  of  wool.  —  As  a  rule,  the  finer  the  wool, 
the  heavier  the  oil.  Some  wools  shrink  as  much  as 
sixty  per  cent  when  scoured,  while  lighter,  open  fleeces 
may  not  lose  over  thirty  per  cent. 

The  table  on  the  following  pages  from  Michigan 
Bulletin  No.  178  shows  weights,  shrinkages,  and 
market  grades  of  fleeces  from  sheep  of  various 
breeds. 

Market  grades,  —  The  table  (pp.  224-225)  does  not 
mean  that  the  wool  from  a  particular  breed  of  sheep 
is  always  given  the  same  grade  upon  the  market. 
The  wool  trade  has  no  regard  for  breed,  and  grades 
wools  upon  the  basis  of  length,  fineness,  quality,  and 
condition.  Condition  in  this  case  includes  oil,  sound- 
ness, freedom  from  foreign  matter,  and  way  of  tying 
and  packing.  The  following  list  of  prices  includes 
the  various  classes  and  grades  quoted  on  the  Boston 
market :  — 


Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  Fleeces 

XX 

Fine  unwashed  .     . 
Fine  unmerchantable 
1  blood  combing     . 
f  blood  combing 

28-29      1  blood  combing      . 

2H      ^,  f,  i  clothing    .     . 

23      Delaine  unwashed   . 

30      Delaine  washed  .     . 

30 

.     .    29 
.     .     23 
.     .    26 
.     .    32 

224 


Sheep-Farming 


H 

o 
u 


Q 
« 

«     g 
eg     § 

o    £2 


^ 


IS 


,1      S?         '^^ 

-^s? 

nW  HtiM 

MM 

«*• 

nN 

•-Hi  win 

0    0*1-"            O    -^ 

C5 

00    o 

<©    t- 

0»    CO    i-^ 

Price 
pou 
aft 

couri 

W5    Wi    »0            ^.    "^ 

CO 

^    «3 

"*    CO 

tP     O     TP 

K 

o.ssi 

"V* 

oCZ-^  0-^ 

Tfi    00    -1           o    o 

<>» 

C5    (V 

00    00 

O*    CO    CO 

.iiifl 

fc-  o  w  c  — 

F^    rH    »i            0«    CV 

o» 

rH    O* 

(M    (M 

9)    (MO* 

€6- 

fi^a^^ 

© 

S" 

U 

bp    o             O 

« 

IS 

!a 

tc.S  .3       .S   tc 

.9 

c  .S 

60    t>C 

to  a  bo 

£ 

.S  -5  J2       J:  .S 

_2 

c    c 

c    o    c 

11 

15  15 

11 

8J8 

^ 

X  X!  fe       fe  X 

^ 

HP<  «'» 

«:»  »K» 

O          2 

O     to     C5             ^    O* 

C5 

CO    CO 

i^ 

»o   >o   l> 

^^'o-S 

«    -^    J>            O    "* 

J>  i> 

>-H 

0»    C5    » 

oi  »o  }>;      cj  »o 

■^ 

d  CO 

d   d 

OO  d  CO 

1  '^ 

l>    J>    to           o    »c 

r? 

o  »o 

CO    CO 

>*  to  •* 

"o  ®  M 

-r< 

i-i,r« 

■*    O    '-'            i-H    C5 

cT 

»0       X? 

00*  '^ 

cs          ^ 

'-'      .-1                                 F-l 

I-H 

III 

^ 

•*  ;5  Tj«         »o  CO 

-* 

>«?»    CO 

CO    ^ 

to    CO    to 

§ 

o  e 

Hr« 

•H>7« 

-^•"  g 

(M    oT  O           ^^ 

»o 

1-1    »o 

r^     0» 

(V   to    o 

~  S  § 

1-^   ,— (    ,^          ,-4 

I— 1 

I— 1    I-H 

J^ 

^^'^ 

b-    o    0>           CO    c» 

t* 

f— 1 

1>  1> 

o    o    « 

cTE 

II 

CO       Tf       Tfl                    1-1      Oi 

1— t 

^    ^ 

1-1    00 

rH     1-H     CO 

X 

«  s  «      n  '^ 

g 

«  s 

o    i> 

s^  s  « 

rJ^ 

^  §  ^      §  ^ 

rt 

^  § 

^  ^ 

^  §  ^ 

OQ 

H  «  w      tf  a 

^ 

W  p::5  a  H  W  tf  K) 

•     •    5    a    •     • 

.     . 

.     .     . 

.So         •+J 

4^ 

_W 

•     • 

•     • 

1 

*     * 

* 

^ 

"i 
2 

a 

* 

c    a 

O              f^ 

CQ 

c 

^    ^ 

.^     •  •- 

ami 

,o 

-  -2 

33     _C 

-2  S, 

1=^1 

IU%^^^ 

s 

U  m 

II 

'Jl  'Jl  >^ 

CO    i>    i>    C5           o 

,_! 

^^ 

O    00 

■^    to    Ci 

r-1    ri     O)    CO             CO 

CO 

OO    00 

9)    O)    (M 

Wool 


225 


^,    ^    S.    »|    CO     GO     »<    CO    CO    ^.     ^    '^H    CO 


§    S    S    S    rH    Q^    0<    0<    OJ    O*    »<    »<    ®i    ®* 


tin 

bo 

bO 

bo 

n 

d 

fl 

i=l 

4::> 

1 

a 

n 

IS 

3 

^ 

F3 

bO 

a 

a 

a 

8 

-Q 

o 

8 

8 

8 

72 

a 
8 

£ 

r2 

3 

^ 

U  W  PQ  PQ 

be   bc   bD   bo    bo   bD 

s  s  .a  .s  .s  .3 
;s  3  iS  ^  ■ 

a  a  a  a 

8  8  8  8 


^   -Q   ^ 

a  a  a 

8  8  8 


n|oo  rHi-*  n|oo  hN  rtl-*  nloo 


o  CO  CO  05  i>  r>  »o 

lO  »0  CO  00  i-O  i>  CO 

i>  i-w  go'  »o  o  co'  O  CO 

CO-'^COCOCOGOGO'* 


no  C5  T— I  O  -^  05  00 
i>  O  «t)  05  O  CO  CO 


rHlM    H|N    MiM  «!•*    rHiN  W|N    H|iN    H|N 

C0C0»OC00<'*0»»0i-HTj(OTjtO'^ 


t>000005i>00'*'<*t"*"*"*^'^ 


rt|N  HlN    MW  nW    HlN    rH|M  r-l|M 

O5(W00C0C000i-HO<Q^CX»Oi— lO^Tf* 

I— I      )— (      I-H  l-H 


(NWiCNOOi-^TflOOOCOOOOSOSt* 


COCOO(Xi-lT-li-li-l©<r-HO<COO»rH 


<ua;aa<i^a4)<ua>as^a^si 


11 

O     O 
X     X 

O  O 


S  S  S  • 

o  o  o 

w  w  w  ^ 

+J  4J  -M  O 

m  0;  a;  -r; 


o    o    o    o  ^ 


S    "^ 


u;:3;^HQQC4Q^^ 


O    CO    OS 

•^     ■<#     I-H 


Ok 

o> 

GO 
.    r-t 

^    CO 


CO 

Om     CO 

a  8 

*     too 


226 


Sheep-Farming 


Michigan,   Wisconsin 

,  New 

Oregon  Fleeces 

York  Ft,f,f,ces 

(Scoured  basis) 

Fine  unwashed  .     .     . 
Delaine  unwashed  .     . 
^  blood  unwashed  .     . 
1  blood  unwashed  .     . 
\  blood  unwashed   .     . 
\,  I,  1  clothing  .     .     . 

20| 

24 

28 

28 

28-29 

21-22 

Eastern  No.  1  staple  . 
Eastern  No.  1  clothing 
Valley  No.  1       ... 
Valley  No.  2       ... 
Valley  No.  3      .     .     . 

58 

50 

47-48 

44-45 

39-40 

Territory  Fleeces 

Kentucky,  Indiana, 

AND 

(Scoured  basis) 

Missouri  Ft.eeces 

Fine  staple     .... 

62-63 

f  blood 

28-29 

Fine  medium  staple     . 

58-60 

i  blood 

28-29 

Fine  clothing      .     .     . 

55-5Q 

Braid 

22i 

Fine  medium  clothing 

51-53 

Georgia 

21-22 

\  blood  combing     .     . 

58-60 

f  blood  combing     .     . 

51-52 

Texas  Fleeces 

1  blood  combing     .     . 

47-49 

(Scoured  basis) 

Fine  12  months      .     . 
Fine  6  to  8  months     . 
Fine  fall 

53-54 
48 
43 

Pulled  Fleeces 
(Scoured  basis) 

Extra         55-57 

Fine  A 53-55 

California  Fleece 
(Scoured  basis). 

A  supers 

B  supers 

C  supers 

51-53 
53-54 
36-38 

Northern       .... 

50-52 

Fine  combing     .     .     . 

53-54 

Middle  county  .     .     . 

48-50 

Medium  combing    .     . 

50-52 

Southern 

46-47 

Coarse  combing       .     . 

40-45 

Fall  free 

42-44 

California  finest      .     . 

48-50 

Fall  defective     .     .     . 

36-38 

California  second    .     . 

47-48 

The  wool  grown  east  of  the  Mississippi  is  all  from 
farm-raised  sheep.     For  this  reason,  it  contains  less 


Wool  227 

dirt  and  sand  than  is  usually  found  in  the  wools  from 
the  range  state.  Texas,  California,  and  Oregon  wool 
clips  are  quoted  separately,  as  they  have  certain  pecul- 
iar characteristics  distinguishing  them  from  wools 
of  other  regions.  The  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  wools 
comprise  chiefly  the  fleeces  of  highly  bred  and  well- 
cared-for  Merinos  and  are  preferred  for  that  reason. 
The  XX  grade  is  the  finest  obtainable,  and  is  used  for 
clothing  purposes,  being  too  short  for  combing. 
The  grade  "fine"  is  one  grade  coarser  than  XX,  half 
blood  is  still  coarser,  and  quarter  blood,  two  grades 
coarser  than  half  blood.  The  relation  of  these  grades 
may  be  made  clearer  if  instead  of  XX,  we  use  the 
term  "full  blood."  The  term  "full  blood,"  when  so 
used,  by  no  means  includes  the  wools  of  all  pure- 
bred Merinos,  but  simply  means  the  finest,  and  in 
the  same  sense,  the  next  lowest  grade  would  be  X  or 
three-quarters  blood,  then  half,  three-eighths,  and 
one-quarter  blood,  respectively.  Delaine  wools  are 
those  that  would  grade  as  fine  and  have  in  addition 
extra  length  of  staple  to  render  them  suitable  for 
fancy  fabrics.  Similar  wools  in  the  territory  classes 
are  designated  fine  staple  and  fine  medium  staple. 

Practically  all  fleeces  from  the  various  styles  of 
Merinos,  including  Rambouillets,  will  fall  into  grades 
higher  than  half  blood.  Most  Southdowns  wfll 
run  around  three-eighths  blood  and  usually  clothing. 
Some  Shropshire  fleeces  may  grade  three  eighths 
and  may  be   either  clothing  or  combing.     But  few 


228  Sheep-Farming 

Oxfords  will  grade  higher  than  one-quarter  blood, 
and  the  best  Cotswolds  or  Lincolns  would  be  classed 
as  quarter  bloods  and  the  coarsest  as  braid  or  coarse 
combing.  The  coarser  wool  shrinks  the  least,  and 
quoted  on  grease  basis  looks  higher  than  the  finer 
grades,  but  this  difference  disappears  when  values  on 
the  scoured  basis  are  studied. 

Prices  and  demand  for  various  grades  fluctuate 
very  widely  from  one  season  to  another,  depending 
very  largely  upon  the  fashions  in  ladies'  dress  goods 
and  men's  suitings.  When  worsteds  are  popular,  the 
longer  wools  are  sought  for,  and  when  cloth  goods 
are  worn,  the  shorter  and  finer  wools  are  on  a  higher 
price  basis. 

Pulled  wools  are  secured  mainly  from  the  pelts  of 
sheep  killed  at  the  packing-houses. 

The  meaning  of  the  term  "unmerchantable"  is 
shown  in  a  recent  announcement  of  the  Boston  Wool 
Trade  Association  :  "Fleeces  grown  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  and  also  in  the  states  of  Minnesota, 
Iowa,  and  Missouri  shall  not  be  considered  merchant- 
able unless  rolled  into  a  firm  bundle,  flesh  side  out, 
free  from  tags  or  parts  of  other  fleeces,  tied  with  a 
hard  glazed  twine  not  heavier  or  larger  than  what  is 
known  in  the  twine  trade  as  size  4|-3  ply  India, 
using  not  more  than  three  single  strings  each  way  of 
the  fleece,  and  all  knots  firmly  tied.  Wool  put  up 
otherwise  than  in  this  manner  shall  be  considered 
unmerchantable  and  shall  be  subject  to  a  discount 
of  at  least  one  cent  per  pound." 


CHAPTER  XII 
EARLY  LAMB-RAISING 

The  phrase  "early  lamb-raising"  refers  to  the 
production  of  lambs  in  the  fall  and  early  winter  to 
be  marketed  when  a  few  weeks  old.  There  has  been 
a  growing  demand  in  the  larger  cities  for  this  baby 
lamb,  or  hot-house  lamb  as  it  is  called,  during  the 
winter  months.  It  belongs  in  the  class  of  delicacies 
with  hot-house  lettuce,  tomatoes,  and  cucumbers, 
fresh  strawberries,  and  green  peas  at  Christmas. 
It  is  the  most  profitable  branch  of  the  sheep  business 
when  rightly  conducted,  and  is  likely  to  remain  so, 
because  the  sheep,  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other 
farm  animal,  adheres  to  its  habit  of  yeaning  in  the 
spring,  thus  making  it  difficult  to  get  lambs  in  the 
fall,  and  for  the  additional  reason  that  few  men 
will  give  the  business  that  nice  attention  necessary 
to  produce  a  strictly  first-class  lamb.  The  season 
for  marketing  the  lambs  begins  at  Thanksgiving  and 
extends  throughout  the  winter. 

The  lamb  should  weigh  not  less  than  40  pounds 
at  8  weeks  of  age.  That  is  the  minimum  weight  at 
which  the  lamb  should  ever  be  butchered,  and  at 
that  weight  only  at  the  opening  of  the  season.  Even 
then  lambs   5   pounds   heavier   would   command  a 

229 


230  Sheep-Farming 

higher  price  were  they  on  the  market.  Later  in  the 
season,  lambs  should  range  between  45  and  50  pounds 
when  slaughtered.  The  condition  of  the  market, 
the  weather,  and  the  lambs  should  be  taken  into 
account  in  deciding  whether  to  slaughter  at  the 
lighter  weight.  If  the  lamb  is  very  fat,  the  weather 
and  the  market  good,  or  if  the  lamb  is  getting  too 
old,  better  slaughter  at  45  pounds  of  weight ;  other- 
wise the  chances  are  in  favor  of  profit  in  holding  a 
week  or  two  longer. 

The  breeding  flock.  —  There  are  only  three  breeds 
of  ewes  that  yield,  to  a  profitable  extent,  in  changing 
their  breeding  habit  from  fall  to  spring :  the  Dorset, 
Merino,  and  Tunis.  A  small  per  cent  of  Downs  and 
Long  Wools  will  breed  for  January  lambs,  but  the 
best  prices  generally  prevail  from  Christmas  through 
January  and  February.  By  March  the  number 
going  to  market  depresses  the  price. 

Because  Tunis  and  Dorset  are  found  in  such  small 
numbers  in  this  country,  the  vast  majority  of  ewes 
employed  in  the  production  of  winter  lambs  are 
Merinos  or  High  Grades  of  some  of  the  three  breeds 
mentioned.  The  Merinos  used  are  the  better  mut- 
ton type  families.  When  mated  with  rams  of  the 
mutton  breeds,  they  produce  very  satisfactory  lambs, 
though  requiring  two  or  three  weeks  longer  to  grow 
to  marketable  size.  Some  winter-lamb  growers 
fatten  and  sell  the  ewe  flock  each  year;  others  re- 
tain them  several  years,  even  throughout  their  use- 


Early  Lamb-Raising  231 

fulness.  Unless  one  has  special  advantages  for  se- 
curing ewes,  I  think  it  better  to  retain  the  flock  from 
year  to  year,  discarding  annually  only  such  as  do 
not  prove  good  mothers  and  those  past  the  prime 
of  life.  After  a  ewe  has  begun  to  decline  from  ad- 
vancing age,  she  will  not  produce  as  good  lambs,  her 
fleece  will  be  lighter,  and  she  herself  will  shrink  in 
value  very  rapidly.  Up  to  six  years,  or  even  eight 
with  Merinos,  ewes  will  produce  better  lambs  than 
when  younger. 

With  the  right  breed  of  ewes,  the  only  secret  un- 
der the  control  of  man  in  stimulating  breeding  at 
this  season  of  the  year  is  that  of  feeding  the  ewe 
flock  so  as  to  have  them  improving  in  condition. 
Ewes  that  have  never  raised  a  lamb  in  the  spring 
more  readily  breed  for  fall  lambs.  Cool,  cloudy 
weather  at  the  breeding  season  is  favorable  for  mat- 
ing. Even  with  all  conditions  favorable,  it  is  not 
possible  to  secure  as  rapid  mating  in  the  summer  as 
in  the  fall.  Nor  have  I  ever  had  as  large  a  per  cent 
of  ewes  breed  during  the  summer  months  as  in  the 
fall.  If  90  per  cent  of  them  mate,  I  consider  it 
satisfactory. 

Management  at  mating  season.  —  Shear  the  ewe 
flock  in  April  and  feed  well.  There  is  nothing  better 
than  corn  when  a  legume,  hay,  or  fresh  grass  accom- 
panies it.  And  I  have  found  that  it  paid  to  feed 
corn  once  a  day,  no  matter  how  good  the  pasture. 
Turn  in  the  rams  by  May  15,  and  continue   feed- 


232  Sheep-Farming 

ing  the  grain  once  a  day  for  two  weeks,  or  longer, 
depending  upon  the  condition  of  the  ewe. 

While  desirable  rams  can  be  secured  for  S'^O  or 
less,  it  is  economy  to  purchase  an  extra  ram  or  two 
and  turn  with  the  flock  rather  than  to  attempt  hand- 
breeding  or  to  remove  the  ram  daily  and  return  to 
the  flock  each  night.  I  have  found  it  advantageous 
to  turn  two  rams  at  a  time  with  a  flock  of  one  hun- 
dred or  more  up  to  three  hundred,  leaving  them  in 
for  a  week  or  ten  days  and  replacing  with  two  others 
for  a  like  period. 

The  presence  of  the  second  ram  is  an  incentive  to 
a  little  greater  activity.  Yet  there  is  very  Httle 
danger  of  rams  fighting  at  this  time  in  the  year.  A 
mature  ram  will  get  seventy-five  to  one  hundred 
lambs.  Any  of  the  Downs,  the  Dorset,  or  Tunis 
are  suitable.  An  advantage  of  the  latter  two  is 
that  their  ewe  lambs  may  be  added  to  the  breeding 
flock  if  desired.  The  rams  should  be  removed  by 
the  1st  of  September  if  it  is  the  intention  to  keep 
the  flock  for  winter  lambs  another  season.  A  ewe 
that  yeans  after  February  and  nurses  her  lamb  to 
marketable  size  is  not  likely  to  breed  early  enough 
the  following  summer.  Only  occasional  ewes,  and 
they  under  high  feedings  will  mate  with  ram  while 
nursing  a  lamb.  It  is  not  practicable  to  raise  two 
crops  of  lambs  a  year. 

Management  of  ewe  and  lamb.  —  As  late  in  the 
fall  as  weather  permits  and  pasture  remains  good. 


Early  Lamb-Raising  233 

the  ewes  should  have  a  daily  run  in  the  field.  They 
should  also  have  grain.  \Mien  the  grass  is  of  new 
growth,  corn  is  a  satisfactory  grain  ;  but  if  the  grass  is 
mature,  from  early  summer  growth,  the  grain  should 
be  in  part  oats,  bran,  or  some  feed  rich  in  protein. 
'VMien  the  pastures  fail  or  the  weather  becomes  un- 
favorable for  grazing,  silage  is  the  most  satisfactory 
substitute  for  grass.  However,  as  it  has  a  much 
wider  nutritive  ratio,  it  must  be  supplemented  by 
highly  nitrogenous  concentrates.  The  cost  of  a 
unit  of  protein  may  determine  the  choice  of  form  in 
which  this  is  to  be  purchased.  As  a  rule,  the  higher 
the  per  cent  of  protein  in  the  feed,  the  lower  its  cost. 
Oats  and  bran,  at  the  usual  market  prices,  are  ex- 
pensive sources  of  protein.  Cotton  seed  meal  has  an 
advantage  over  linseed  as  a  supplement  to  silage  in 
that  it  counteracts  the  laxative  effect  of  the  silage, 
and  when  it  can  be  bought  at  the  same  price,  or  less, 
per  ton  as  bran,  it  is  to  be  preferred,  especially  to 
feed  in  connection  with  silage. 

Silage  may  be  advantageously  fed  to  the  extent 
of  four  pounds  per  head  daily  at  two  feeds.  The 
need  of  a  protein  supplement  to  the  silage  can  be 
somewhat  reduced  by  mixing  soy  beans  or  cowpeas 
with  corn  in  the  silo. 

In  latitudes  where  beets  thrive  well,  they  may 
be  substituted  for  silage,  also  the  beet  pulp  from  the 
sugar  factory.  And  it  should  be  said  that  ewes  can 
be  successfully  fed  without  any  of  these  succulent 


234  Sheep-Farming 

feeds,  but,  as  a  rule,  not  so  cheaply.  The  corn  plant 
should  always  be  the  basis  of  the  ration.  When  fed, 
dry  linseed  meal  is  a  valuable  supplement.  It  is 
very  diflficult  to  make  a  satisfactory  ration  without 
clover,  alfalfa,  soy  bean,  or  cowpea  hay. 

Feeding  the  lambs.  —  Soon  after  the  lambs  are 
two  weeks  old,  they  will  begin  to  eat  and  should  have 
a  trough  from  which  the  old  sheep  are  kept  by  a  creep, 
through  which  the  lambs  can  pass,  but  not  the  old 
sheep.  The  lambs  should  also  have  a  separate  rack 
for  hay  and  be  supplied  with  choice  clover  or  alfalfa. 
They  should  not  be  required  to  eat  more  than  the 
choice  part,  the  balance  being  removed  and  fed  to 
the  ewes  or  other  stock.  The  grain  for  the  lambs 
may  consist  of  corn,  wheat,  and  oats  with  various 
mill  feeds.  Of  all  concentrates  lambs  prefer  corn. 
For  the  very  young  ones  it  may  be  cracked,  never 
finely  ground,  but  after  they  are  a  month  old,  shelled 
corn  is  entirely  satisfactory,  and  when  alfalfa  hay  is 
fed  in  abundance,  may  be  the  only  grain.  However, 
a  variety  of  concentrates  is  always  advantageous ; 
even  sugar  may  be  added  with  profit.  When  the 
hay  is  not  the  choicest,  bran  should  be  used  largely, 
care  being  taken  to  have  it  fresh.  A  slight  mixture 
of  some  of  the  molasses  feeds  is  relished. 

As  soon  as  the  lambs  are  eating  well,  they  should 
be  retained  in  the  stable,  though  the  mothers  go  out 
to  graze.  It  is  advisable  to  keep  the  lambs  as  quiet 
as  possible.     Lambs  are  easily  separated  from  their 


Early  Lamb-Raising  235 

mothers  by  fastening  them  in  their  eating  room  by 
a  gate  closing  the  creep.  This  confinement  of  the 
lambs  also  makes  it  much  easier  to  return  the  flock 
to  the  stable.  A  lot  of  frolicking  lambs  are  often 
very  trying  on  the  attendant's  patience  when  at- 
tempting to  drive  them  into  a  stable.  Fresh  water 
and  salt  should  be  accessible  to  the  flock  at  all  times. 
No  other  condiment  is  necessary  or  profltable. 

Marketing  the  lambs.  —  When  a  lamb  gets  large 
enough  so  that  it  passes  through  an  eight-inch  space 
—  the  width  of  the  spaces  in  the  creep  —  with  diffi- 
culty, it  is  about  ready  for  marketing.  However, 
the  more  accurate  gauge  of  the  scales  should  be  em- 
ployed in  the  selection  of  lambs  for  slaughter  until 
the  shepherd  has  had  experience  enough  in  handling 
them  to  make  close  estimate  of  weights.  One  more 
week's  growth  will  often  make  a  difference  of  one  or 
two  dollars  in  the  selling  value. 

Before  any  lambs  are  ready  for  slaughter,  the  owner 
should  communicate  with  some  well-recommended 
commission  firm  and  ask  for  instructions  as  to  the 
form  in  which  they  desire  them  dressed.  Different 
markets  have  different  demands  in  this  particular, 
hence  it  is  not  advisable  to  describe  here  the  form  of 
dressing  in  detail.  Some  mention  of  method,  how- 
ever, may  be  helpful.  In  the  evening  before  the 
lambs  are  to  be  slaughtered,  separate  them  from  the 
ewes  and  confine  away  from  feed,  but  within  hearing 
of  their  mothers.     In  the  morning  catch  and  confine 


236 


Sheep-Farming 


the  mothers  in  a  pen  arranged  for  that  purpose 
convenient  to  the  main  flock.  They  may  be  identi- 
fied by  returning  the  lambs  and  allowing  them  to 
find  their  mothers.     An  easier  method,  however,  is 


U 


1 


Fig.  49.  —  Rack  for  hanging  up  lambs  for  butchering. 

to  put  a  similar  mark  on  both  ewe  and  lamb  at  some 
earlier  time  when  they  are  found  together.  It  is 
important  that  the  mothers  of  the  slaughtered  lambs 
be  confined  on  short  rations  and  their  milk  drawn 
occasionally  until  they  are  dried  off.  It  is  a  good 
practice  to  let  younger  lambs  in  the  flock,  that  may 
not  be  getting  enough  from  their  own  mothers,  suck 
these  ewes  once  or  twice  a  day  for  one  or  two  weeks. 
Equipment  for  butchering.  —  Provide  a  place  con- 
venient to  the  stable  for  butchering  and  hanging 
until  cool.  The  convenient  way  of  killing  is  to  sus- 
pend by  hind  legs  by  means  of  strong  twine  looped 


Early  Lamb-Raising  237 

about  the  pasterns  and  hung  on  a  peg  In  a  support, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  49.  The  two  supports  are  1X4 
inch  boards.  Their  lower  end  should  be  about  6 
feet  above  the  floor.  They  should  be  fastened  at 
the  top  by  a  single  bolt  and  be  about  30  inches  apart. 
Two  or  three  holes  at  different  distances  from  the 
lower  ends  enable  the  butcher  to  hang  the  lambs 
at  the  height  most  convenient  for  himself.  A  method 
that  appeals  to  some  as  more  humane  is  to  fasten 
the  lamb  in  a  trough  at  convenient  height  with  its 
head  out  over  one  end.  Two  small  butcher  knives 
with  keen  edges  should  be  provided,  also  a  vessel 
for  catching  the  blood.  Kill  by  severing  the  large 
artery  and  jugular  vein  in  the  neck  (Fig.  50,  PL 
XXI).  Death  is  hastened  by  severing  the  spinal  cord 
between  the  first  and  second  vertebra.  It  adds  to 
the  appearance  of  the  carcass  to  trim  away  all 
stained  wool  about  the  tail  and  flanks,  also  along  the 
belly  and  brisket,  and  to  wash  the  bare  skin  in  the 
arm  pits.  The  carcass  should  hang  in  a  cool,  airy 
place  for  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  before  being 
wrapped  and  shipped,  long  enough  to  be  well  cooled 
out  (Fig.  51,  PI.  XXI). 

Shipping.  —  On  account  of  the  rough  handling 
given  by  express  companies,  the  only  way  to  insure 
their  arriving  in  good  shape  is  to  ship  in  crates, 
four  to  a  crate.  The  crate  will  be  returned  at  a 
nominal  charge.  The  size  of  the  crate  must  depend 
upon  the  form  of  dressing.     When  backsets  are  used, 


238  Sheep-Farming 

it  must  be  larger  than  when  they  are  not.  Make 
crates  as  light  as  is  consistent  with  necessary  strength. 
Each  lamb  should  be  wrapped  in  new  muslin, 
enough  to  cover  all  the  exposed  tissue.  Neatness 
in  every  detail  in  the  dressing,  as  attention  to  details 
in  feeding,  is  important  in  the  winter-lamb  business. 

Docking  and  castrating.  —  As  these  lambs  are 
slaughtered  at  so  young  an  age,  they  are  never  docked 
nor  is  it  necessary  to  castrate  them.  However, 
late  in  the  season  it  is  advisable  to  castrate  lest 
some  be  left  when  the  weather  becomes  too  warm 
to  ship,  and  ram  lambs  sent  to  the  market  alive 
have  to  go  at  a  discount. 

These  lambs  may  be  sent  to  market  just  as  late 
in  the  spring  as  weather  conditions  will  permit.  In 
the  spring  it  is  an  advantage  to  be  near  one's  market. 
During  cold  weather,  they  may  be  shipped  five 
hundred  miles  or  even  farther. 

Markets.  —  In  years  past,  New  York  and  Boston 
have  been  the  principal  markets,  but  a  market  for 
this  product  may  be  developed  in  almost  every  city 
with  its  first-class  hotels  and  restaurants. 

Buildings.  —  The  barn  for  this  branch  of  sheep 
husbandry  must  be  capable  of  being  closed  tightly, 
yet  must  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated.  Doors 
should  be  made  in  two  sections,  so  that  the  upper 
part  can  be  kept  open  in  all  pleasant  weather.  The 
windows  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  open  easily. 
A  good  plan  for  this  is  to  have  them  hinged  at  the 


Early  Lamb-Raising  239 

bottom  and  the  frame  arranged  so  as  to  let  the  sash 
lean  in  at  the  top,  thus  admitting  air,  but  excluding 
snow  or  rain.  In  colder  climates,  the  flock  may  well 
be  confined  to  the  stable  all  the  time  after  winter 
opens.  Feed  racks  must  be  so  designed  as  to  keep 
lambs  out  of  them,  and  when  ensilage  is  fed,  so  as  to 
be  closed  against  the  sheep  until  the  feed  is  dis- 
tributed. Figure  H  represents  a  rack  that  has  been 
found  very  satisfactory  on  the  writer's  farm,  where 
ensilage  is  fed.  It  is  equally  satisfactory  when  only 
dry  grain  and  hay  are  fed.  With  the  sheep  com- 
pletely shut  away  from  their  feed  as  it  is  being  dis- 
tributed, they  get  in  the  way  very  little.  And  they 
can  be  avoided  entirely  by  the  feeder  walking  in  the 
rack  on  the  raised  center  connecting  the  troughs. 
I  have  never  seen  any  other  style  of  rack  so  entirely 
satisfactory  for  feeding  large  flocks  of  ewes  with 
lambs.  At  least  one  foot  of  feeding  space  should  be 
provided  for  each  ewe  of  the  smaller  breeds  and  more 
for  the  larger  ones.  Be  sure  to  have  enough  so  that 
every  ewe  can  get  her  full  share  of  feed  at  each  feeding. 
Floor  space.  —  It  is,  of  course,  desirable  to  reduce 
the  investment  in  buildings  to  the  minimum  per 
ewe.  After  ewes  have  yeaned,  no  provision  for  exer- 
cise for  them  need  be  made,  and  much  activity  on 
the  part  of  the  lambs  is  not  desirable,  as  it  gives  a 
dark  color  to  the  muscles  that  is  objectionable  in 
the  dressed  carcass.  Ten  square  feet  of  floor  space 
per  ewe,  outside  of  that  occupied  by  racks  and  the 
feeding  room  for  lambs,  is  sufficient. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

FATTENING  SHEEP 

In  farm  flocks,  practically  all  the  sheep  fitted  for 
market  are  lambs.  A  few  cull  ewes  need  to  be  fat- 
tened in  most  seasons,  but  it  is  the  finishing  of  the 
lambs  that  has  most  to  do  with  returns  and  requires 
special  study.  There  are  three  plans  of  disposing 
of  lambs.  The  first  is  to  have  the  lambs  come  early 
and  then  to  feed  them  liberally  in  pens  from  which  the 
ewes  are  excluded.  The  milk  flow  of  the  ewes  is 
also  kept  up  by  good  feeding,  and  lambs  are  market- 
able at  fifty  pounds  or  upwards.  Selling  at  this 
age  avoids  trouble  from  summer  parasites  and  the 
extra  value  on  the  early  market  makes  the  returns 
as  large  as  from  heavier  lambs  marketed  later  at  a 
lower  price. 

Age  at  which  to  feed  grain.  —  The  second  plan  is 
to  market  the  lambs  at  weaning  time  or  shortly 
after.  The  third  is  to  wean  the  lambs  and  run  them 
on  pasture  until  winter,  when  they  are  fattened  and 
sold  when  ten  or  eleven  months  old.  In  the  first 
plan,  the  lambs  must  be  fed  grain  while  on  the  ewes ; 
with  the  other  plans,  feeding  at  that  stage  is  optional. 
An  extensive  series  of  experiments  was  conducted 
at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  to  determine 

240 


Fattening  Sheep  241 

whether  or  not  it  pays  to  feed  grain  continuously 
from  the  time  lambs  are  born  until  they  are  put  on 
the  market,  or  whether  it  pays  to  only  feed  them 
grain  after  they  have  been  weaned,  or  it  may  be  still 
later  when  they  are  put  in  the  sheds  for  winter  fatten- 
ing. The  two  practices  that  are  most  strongly  rep- 
resented in  these  ways  are  the  practice  of  the  farmer, 
on  the  one  hand,  who  does  not  feed  his  lambs  any 
grain  during  the  summer  season,  and  the  practice 
of  the  feeder  who  forces  animals  continuously  from 
their  birth.  It  is  a  common  belief  that  when  lambs 
are  not  fed  grain  within  three  or  four  months  pre- 
vious to  putting  them  on  the  market,  they  will  make 
a  more  rapid  gain  and  a  more  profitable  one,  during 
the  time  of  feeding,  and  then  the  cost  of  gain  pre- 
vious to  that  has  been  very  slight.  The  question 
resolves  itself  into  the  proposition  that  it  pays  bet- 
ter to  grow  the  lamb  on  pasture  and  such  rough 
forage  as  is  obtainable  and  feed  him  for  market  on 
grains.  The  other  practice  opposed  to  this  recog- 
nizes the  fact  that  the  younger  the  animal,  the  greater 
the  gain  on  a  common  given  amount  of  food,  and 
the  aim  of  the  feeder  who  follows  this  practice  is  to 
force  the  lamb  to  eat  as  much  as  possible  from  the 
time  it  is  dropped  until  it  is  put  on  the  market.  To 
analyze  the  differences  in  the  practices  and  to  indi- 
cate which  are  the  most  profitable  under  average 
conditions,  it  will  be  best  to  divide  the  life  of  a  lamb 
that  is  being  fed  for  market  into  three  periods.     The 


242  Sheep-Farming 

first  period  is  that  before  weaning ;   the  second  that 
after  weaning ;  and  the  third  the  fattening  period. 

The  object  of  the  Wisconsin  experiments  was  to 
determine  whether  it  pays  to  feed  grain  only  in 
the  third  period,  or  in  both  the  second  and  third 
periods,  or  whether  grain  should  be  fed  through  all 
periods,  that  is,  from  the  birth  of  the  lamb  until 
marketed.  Grade  Shropshire  ewes  were  used  and 
divided  into  three  lots.^  All  the  ewes  received  ex- 
actly the  same  treatment  throughout  the  season  and 
were  practically  uniform  in  milking  qualities.  One 
lot  of  lambs  had  access  to  a  small  compartment 
where  grain  was  fed  to  them.  The  lambs  in  the 
two  other  lots  were  not  given  any  grain,  and  the  ewes 
had  exactly  the  same  management  as  the  others. 
When  the  ewes  were  in  the  shed  in  the  early  spring, 
it  was  an  easy  matter  to  feed  the  lambs  in  this  way. 
When  they  were  turned  out,  both  the  ewes  and  lambs 
ran  together  on  the  same  pasture,  night  and  morning. 
The  lambs  getting  grain  were  separated  from  the 
others  and  allowed  to  have  access  to  the  apartment 
in  which  their  grain  was  fed  them.  This  was  the 
method  followed  until  weaning  time ;  then  all  were 
weaned  at  the  same  time  and  put  together  on  the 
same  run  of  pasture.  At  night  the  lambs  receiving 
grain  were  separated  from  the  others  and  fed  their 
ration  at  this  time.     From  weaning  until  fattening, 

1  These  experiments  were  reported  in  the  thirteenth  and  twentieth 
annal  reports  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 


Fattening  Sheep  243 

there  were  two  lots  getting  grain,  with  the  third  lot 
having  nothing  but  pasturage,  and  those  that  were 
getting  grain  were  fed  such  a  ration  as  was  thought 
would  contribute  to  their  growth.  As  soon  as  the 
snow  prevented  further  feeding  on  pasture,  the 
lambs  were  put  in  pens  and  fed  exactly  the  same 
kind  of  ration,  although  the  amount  eaten  by  each 
was  separately  determined.  Through  this  period, 
all  the  lambs  were  fed  so  as  to  make  the  quickest 
and  the  most  economical  gains.  They  were  managed 
exactly  alike  and  fed  similar  foods.  In  a  general 
way  the  lambs  were  divided  so  as  to  be  as  near  the 
same  age  as  possible.  At  the  time  the  experiment 
started  in  the  spring,  the  lambs  would  be  about  one 
month  old  in  all  trials.  The  first  period  before 
weaning  extended  over  twelve  or  thirteen  weeks,  and 
the  lambs  were  usually  weaned  in  July  or  the  fore 
part  of  August,  making  the  first  period  twelve  or 
fourteen  weeks.  During  the  second  period,  that 
usually  extended  from  the  fore  part  of  August  until 
the  first  of  December,  the  lambs  were  fed  for  about 
twelve  or  fourteen  weeks.  The  third  period  ended 
when  the  lambs  were  marketed,  usually  in  Febru- 
ary. The  test  thus  planned  was  carried  out  in  five 
seasons,  1891  to  1895,  inclusive.  The  tables  show 
that  these  lambs  were  heavier  than  the  markets  in 
subsequent  years  cared  for  in  lambs,  but  the  econ- 
omy of  utilizing  the  capacity  of  a  young  animal  to 
use  feed  economically  is  clearly  dem_onstrated. 


244  Sheep-Farming 

It  was  aimed  to  grow  the  lambs  during  the  first 
two  periods  rather  than  to  fatten  them,  and  in  each 
case  the  rations  were  fed  with  this  object  in  view. 
The  result  of  this  work  shows  that  the  gains  made 
by  the  lambs  in  lot  I  (those  fed  grain  before  wean- 
ing) was  much  greater  than  by  those  not  receiving 
grain,  and  that  it  took  less  grain  for  one  pound  of 
gain  than  during  any  of  the  other  periods.  The 
gains  made  by  the  lambs  fed  grain  after  weaning 
were  not  economical,  as  the  figures  show.  The 
result  of  feeding  grain  at  this  period  depends  upon  the 
amounts  fed.  If  more  than  one-half  pound  per  day 
were  fed,  the  lambs  would  rely  on  the  grain  and  not 
eat  much  pasture,  w^hich  resulted  in  their  not  making 
economical  gains.  In  every  trial  where  the  grain 
was  limited  to  one  and  one-half  pounds  per  day,  the 
cost  of  the  gain  was  satisfactory.  The  results  also 
show  that  feeding  lambs  before  and  after  weaning 
did  not  lessen  the  gain  made  during  the  later  fatten- 
ing period. 

The  grain-fed  lambs  matured  considerably  better 
than  those  not  receiving  grain  previous  to  the  fatten- 
ing period.  In  three  trials  the  lambs  that  had 
grain  from  birth  weighed  as  much  seven  weeks  before 
the  end  of  the  experiment  as  did  the  others  when 
the  experiment  was  completed.  By  taking  the 
average  weight  of  the  lambs  in  lot  III  at  the  end  of 
the  trial  and  comparing  it  with  the  cost  of  feeding 
the  lambs  in  lot  I  until  they  were  of  the  same  weight. 


Fattening  Sheep  245 

it  was  found  that  those  fed  grain  from  birth  made  a 
cheaper  gain  in  each  case. 

To  determine  which  of  these  methods  of  feeding 
lambs  was  the  most  profitable,  it  was  necessary  to 
make  a  comparison  of  the  amount  that  would  be 
received  for  them  on  the  market  minus  the  cost  of 
the  feed  they  consumed.  The  table  which  follows 
gives  the  data  for  each  of  the  three  periods  of  the 
^Ye  trials. 

This  comparison  was  made  by  finding  what  each 
lot  would  bring  on  the  market  at  the  end  of  each 
period  from  the  average  weight  per  head  based  on 
the  average  price  they  would  bring  on  the  market 
and  deducting  the  cost  of  the  grain  consumed. 
The  prices  used  for  determining  their  value  on  the 
market  was  obtained  by  taking  an  average  of  the 
price  placed  on  each  lot  at  the  end  of  the  period  by  a 
local  butcher.  The  prices  were  based  on  Chicago 
market  prices  furnished  by  a  live  stock  commission 
firm,  the  results  of  memoranda  of  representative 
sales  of  lambs  weighing  about  the  same  as  the  lambs 
in  these  trials  at  the  end  of  each  period. 

A  glance  at  the  table  on  the  following  page  will 
show  that  there  was  considerable  difference  in  the 
price  per  hundred  at  which  the  different  lots  were 
valued  at  the  end  of  the  same  period,  as  well  as  be- 
tween the  values  of  the  same  lot  during  the  other 
periods.  In  every  case,  the  lambs  fed  grain  from 
birth  would  bring  a  higher  price,  if  sold  at  the  end 


246 


Sheep-Farming 


(H  2 

«  @ 

a  I 
i 


Bxuoa  J  aAix 

-VHVdWOO 

CO  CO  oi 

avaH  «a<i 

-VHVdPVOO 

O    -^    Oi 
05    O    00 

00  CO  ©i 

SQNnoj  001 
aad  amv^ 

05    ■*     Tj< 
«D    1>    i> 

ONINVa^ 

XV  earevi 

JO  XHoiaAi 

aovaaAv 

CO    CM    rH 

_  o  «o  S 

av3H 

aad  Nivao 

ao  xsoo 

aovaaAy 

CO 

«^  1    1 

aaaj  ^o 
xsoo  avxox 

ll  1 

sxooy^ 

a  \   \   \ 

aaaaoj 
Kaoo 

a  \   \   \ 

iYH 

:a  1   1   1 

XVHHAY 

^2  1   1 

SXVQ 

a^  i   1 

Tvajv  110 

CO 

Nvag 

^2   1    1 

TYaH  KHOQ 

:2|    1     1 

sarev-T; 
JO  aaawn^i 

i^g 

Number 

OF  LOT 

hhHS 

•f" 

CO 

■* 

CO 

CO 

CO 

00 

CO 

€©• 

CO 

on 

■* 

t> 

o 

I— 1 

^ 

CO 

CO 

^ 

■^ 

■^ 

■^ 

00 

CO 

00 

•^ 

■^ 

CO 

^ 

■* 

CO 

a 

00 

»^ 

,_^ 

C5 

« 

00 

fX 

OJ 

^. 

1 

,_! 

1 

^©^ 

CO 

00 

1> 

t> 

lO 

CO 

1 

(X 

,^v. 

se- 

n 

2; 

;?: 

1 

1 

1 

-< 

1 

1 

1 

M 

^ 

K 

M 

1 

1 

H 

b 

Q 

1 

1 

O 

1 

1 

1 

ll< 

1 

1 

1 

Q 

1 

1 

1 

?^ 

»o 

o 

o» 

■O 

tB 

00 

CO 

■^ 

CO 

'^ 

r-^ 

o 

*o 

1 

o 

1 

1 

— 

1 

o 

1 

— 

o 

CO 

GO    C5    »■ 

5 

(V 

o 

) 

. 

1- 

t 

HH    HH    h-H        I 


OJ 

1    00        1 

"^ 

00     rH        1 

•^ 

CO    ^' 

€6- 

"* 

»*     r-l 

«5 

l>    o 

b- 

«0    CO 

m 

■^ 

o: 

05 

CO 

oo 

°o 

»o 

'!P 

■* 

«©■ 

(V 

!-H 

I— 1 

r— ( 

»^ 

CO 

Tf« 

<3.< 

'^ 

* 

H- 

(X 

05 

^ 

«e- 

'"' 

'a' 

o 

"^ 

r^ 

CO 

05 

CO 

CO 

CO 

GO 

^ 

K 

l-H 

■^ 

H 

«©■ 

h 

o 

CO 

^ 

!?; 

l> 

l-H 

^ 

00 

00 

4 

<v 

J> 

< 

Oi 

1 

t^ 

00 

Oi 

« 

05 

00 

©} 

»c 

■^ 

to 

^ 

CO 

'^ 

CO 

^ 

(X 

05 

CN 

Q 

O 

1 

1 

1 

1 

'^ 

CO 

CO 

OS 

a^ 

CD 

u 

CO 

"^ 

(M 

« 

05 

h- 

00 

l-H 

00 

00 

'^ 

CO 

Oi 

,_, 

lO 

■^ 

CO 

1 

I— ( 
1 

»o 
1 

CO 

1 

CD~ 

1 

I-H 

05 

,_( 

"* 

-^ 

1> 

CO 

X 

■* 

9)    Oi 

(M 

o» 

»« 

. 

. 

. 

„    II 

hhHB     II 

Fattening  Sheep  247 

of  the  weaning  period,  as  well  as  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fattening  period  and  at  the  end  of  the  period, 
than  those  not  receiving  grain. 

The  preceding  answers  the  question  in  the  affirm- 
ative, whether  it  pays  to  feed  lambs  grain  if  they 
are  sold  at  weaning  time  or  at  about  four  months 
old,  since  the  lambs  fed  grain  from  birth  show  a 
greater  comparative  profit  by  68  cents  per  head. 

The  question.  Does  it  pay  to  feed  grain  to  lambs 
before  and  after  weaning  if  sold  in  November  ?  is 
also  answered  in  the  affirmative.  Those  receiving 
grain  from  weaning  returned  a  greater  profit  than 
either  of  the  other  lots. 

Corn  for  fattening  sheep.  —  This  assuredly  is  the 
most  fattening  farm  grain  that  may  be  fed  to  sheep. 
In  relying  on  it  alone,  however,  there  is  much  difficulty 
in  maintaining  the  appetites  of  the  sheep  and  in 
preventing  disorders  and  deaths.  At  common  prices 
it  is  the  cheapest  grain.  In  feeding  timothy  or 
prairie  hay,  straw,  or  corn  fodder,  a  grain  ration  of 
corn  alone  would  be  unsatisfactory  aside  from  the 
disadvantage  of  the  lack  of  variety.  With  clover, 
hay,  or  alfalfa,  corn  has  combined  to  give  excellent 
results  in  numerous  experiments  and  in  commercial 
feeding. 

Oats,  —  This  grain  is  especially  desirable  for  getting 
sheep  or  lambs  on  feed.  It  is  safe  to  begin  with. 
Fed  alone  continuously,  oats  do  not  produce  as  great 
gains  as  corn  does,  and  as  the  fattening  period  ad- 


248  Sheep-Farming 

vances,  the  proportion  of  oats  should  be  decreased. 
Much,  however,  depends  upon  the  form  of  roughage 
in  use  and  comparative  prices  of  these  grains. 

Peas.  —  Peas  are  excellent  feed  for  sheep.  With 
breeders  they  are  especially  prized  for  producing 
firm  flesh.  They  are  more  suitable  for  feeding  with 
carbonaceous  roughages  than  is  corn  and,  when  their 
price  allows,  will  be  found  a  very  satisfactory  feed. 

Bran.  —  When  bran  was  cheaper  than  it  has  been 
in  most  years  since  1900,  it  was  quite  largely  used  in 
sheep  feeding.  Like  oats,  it  is  very  useful  in  avoiding 
disorders  when  commencing  grain  feeding,  and  its 
cooling  and  laxative  tendencies  make  it  very  useful, 
especially  when  the  alfalfa  or  succulent  feeds  are  not 
available. 

The  farm  feeds  mentioned  were  tested  at  the 
Wisconsin  Station  with  lambs  before  weaning  in  four 
experiments.  The  average  of  the  result  of  the  trials 
showed  that  a  slightly  smaller  weight  of  bran  was 
required  for  each  pound  of  gain  than  of  ground 
corn.  A  somewhat  greater  weight  of  oats  was  re- 
quired than  of  corn,  and  cracked  peas  were  less 
effective  than  oats. 

In  similar  tests  of  these  feeds  with  weaned  lambs, 
corn  and  peas  were  equally  useful,  while  oats  and  bran 
each  required  a  half  greater  weight  for  a  pound  of 
gain  than  was  needed  of  corn  or  peas.  In  a  test  of 
mixtures  of  these  grains,  there  was  required  for  a 
pound  of  gain  5.3  pounds  in  case  of  corn,  6.3  pounds 


Fattening  Sheep  249 

of  corn  and  oats,  5.1  pounds  of  corn  and  peas,  and  5,Q 
pounds  of  corn,  oats,  and  peas. 

Wheat.  —  Wheat  has  been  used  extensively. 
Montana  experiments  show  returns  at  the  rate  of 
100  pounds  grain  from  300  pounds  of  sound 
wheat  and  800  pounds  clover  hay  when  the  daily 
ration  was  .8  pound  wheat  and  2  pounds  hay.  In 
feeding  1.5  pounds  wheat  and  1.3  pounds  brome  and 
prairie  hay,  the  South  Dakota  Station  secured  100 
pounds  gain  from  534  pounds  wheat  and  470  pounds 
hay.  So  far  as  the  results  of  various  experiments  are 
comparable,  they  show  that  from  ten  to  fifteen  per 
cent  more  wheat  than  corn  is  necessary  for  a  100 
pounds  increase  in  weight. 

Barley.  —  Barley  is  only  slightly  inferior  to  corn 
for  fattening  purposes,  though,  as  in  feeding  of  corn, 
the  results  are  much  better  when  a  nitrogenous  hay 
or  roughage  is  used. 

Soy  beans.  —  On  account  of  their  high  price,  soy 
beans  have  not  been  widely  used  in  fattening  sheep. 
Such  results  as  have  been  obtained  indicate  for  them 
a  very  high  value,  and  when  leguminous  hay  cannot 
be  used,  beans  should  be  especially  valuable. 

Roughages  for  fattening  sheep.  —  The  following 
tables  of  results  from  experiments  at  the  Ohio  Station  ^ 
gives  a  very  fair  idea  of  the  relative  of  four  of  the 
commoner  roughages :  — 

^  Ohio  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  245. 


250 


Sheep-Farming 


«5  o»  o 

0>    CO    i-<    O    »«       ' 

• 

s! 

ci   i»i   i> 

"^  i>   00*  1-3  ^ 

■q 

.o 

00    O    Oi 

00    »«    O    »»    CO 

H 

"^ 

i>  t-  <v 

f-H    00    i>    o    o 

S 

« 

8 

ti 

W5    CO    ^ 

*0    -*    CO    -^    CO 

g) 

^ 

•^   ■<?!   ■*' 

CO  CO  »i  C5  00 

"-• 

CO     1>     00 

>-i  .-H  00  CO   »» 

« 

o 

CO   w   »o 

O    Tjt    CO    ■*    »o 

tf 

•3 

a 

(U 

Oi               05 

IB 

s 

-Q 

^    -*    »i    CO 

— 

"■^ 

b-    O    OS    00 

8 

O 

1 

B 

o    »» 

Tjp    OS    ^    <V    CO 

^ 

*o  i>  ci 

r^     OS     r-^     d     OS 

a 

t-  o  <»»  CO  T-i 

^  «  t^ 

«5    CO    CO    •«fi    •* 

NITO  iTUVQ 

;0 

CO  <rt  o» 

I-H      ^1      00 

«  ^  s 

s  §§?  ^  § 

aoYHaAV 

»i    0»    CO    o*    »» 

siVQ  S6 

^ 

»#    t>    05 

Nivo  aviox 

51  ^   53 

CO    00    ^    O    CO 

»)    CO    ^    CO    CO 

•O 

lO 

iHOia^ 

, 

«    J>    M 

f-J   ^   »o   <v   o 

j2 

»<    CO    CO    OS    1-H 

TVNIJ 

C^    w    o 

I— 1     1— 1     r-H 

O    CN    CO    ^    <v 

1— 1      1— 1      1-H      l-H      1-H 

XHOiaA\. 

_Q 

05     O     ■* 
OS    oo    <*< 

^    g    ^    ^    CO 

nviuKi 

M    GO    OO 

^  s  g  s  ^ 

.        .       . 

•  ^  I'  ^  ^ 

... 

•  ^  -£i    ^    o 

>5    >»    J 

o 

J^  1 

>  -O  '^  -o  -^ 

5   fl   c   fi   fl 

1 

11^ 

■^     cS     cS     c3     c« 

S  'S  "i  if  13 

o    S    S    S   S 

O     C3     O 

"  a  a  a  a 

-0  -o  -0 

fl    fl    a 

ee     c«     eS 

fl  'o  '3  *o  '3 

: 

e  s  s 

s  s  s  s  s 

O     O     O 

o    o    o    o    o 

I 

UUCJUUUUU     1 

1  ioi  Ni  sawv^ 

^    -^    M 

CO    -*    •*    ^    "* 

ao  aaaren^ 

I— 1    1-^    1— ( 

hH 

hH     hH 

ON  loi 

h^    hH    l-H 

S>?E:> 

Fattening  Sheep 


251 


H 


pH        w5        i^,  r-j  oq  ""f; 

»fi     rH     0>     «5     "«jl     rH     »C     CO 
i>COO5O51>t-O500 


i-JrHlOOioOfVGOrH 
CO    CO    ^    ^    ^    CO    ''^    ^ 


05  i-H  t> 

O  OO"  CO  J> 
«0  U5  X  O 


W5  »*  »<  o*  «o  «o  -"a^ 

CO  05  ■**  Oi  rP  «5  00 

t-  <X  .-H  »iO  O  CD  i-i 

CO  CO  «0  "*  CO  »<  ■* 


(V 

a> 

05 

r^ 

h- 

00 

CO 

r^ 

wj 

CO 

on 

■^ 

(^ 

CO 

CO 

»< 

^. 

CO 

CO 

o« 

• 

COCOOi-iO*i-Hl>'«^ 
rHOCC>»<<»iCOOCO 
•^TftOiCO-tf-^OOCO 


r^ 

»« 

J^ 

fH 

CO 

Tft 

GO 

<T) 

r^ 

en 

o 

<v 

CO 

00 

I— 1 

CO 

I— 1 

o 

1—1 

00 

I— 1 

CO 

<N 

»< 

a 

;^ 

o> 

o 

C75 

^ 

^ 

05 

on 

o 

CO 

(V 

^ 

05 

Oi 

05 

00 

GO 

Oi 

05 

Oi 

OO 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

II 


.  -^ 

•  > 

>  -O   -^   X)   ^3 

5  fl   i=i   0   a 

m  (€     c^     c€     ^ 


03     O 


02 

o  <^  a 

el    «  "^ 


S3 

a;    0) 


O     O     O      O 


a    a    CI    fl    a    CI    c 


dQQ&d 

O     O     O 

CJ  u  u 

»0    «5    »0    «5    »0 

«0    W5    »0 
I— 1    1— 1    I— 1 

,.    P5    f>  I— ^    t— (    HH 


-S 


+J    !n 


^  ^  8 

g-a-s 

3     8     ^ 
O    ^     O 

^  T3  i^ 
-^  -2  -2 

a  §  g 

0)      <U      0) 

o  o  o 


I 

a 
I 


> 

I   -3 


252  Sheep-Farming 

In  the  first  experiment,  the  lot  fed  alfalfa  hay  re- 
quired 377  pounds  corn  for  100  pounds  gain,  while 
with  clover  hay  405  pounds  were  required.  Though 
the  weight  of  corn  stover  fed  lot  IV  was  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  hay  fed  to  the  first  two  lots,  571 
pounds  corn  were  used  in  making  100  pounds  gain.  A 
slight  advantage  was  gained  by  adding  oil  meal  to  the 
clover  hay  ration  of  lot  I  in  the  second  trial,  though  the 
extra  cost  would  offset  this  extra  return.  The  alfalfa, 
corn,  and  oil-meal  ration  of  lot  VI  was  but  little  more 
effective  than  the  alfalfa  and  corn  fed  lot  II.  The  ad- 
dition of  oil-meal  to  the  corn-stover  ration  effected  a 
reduction  of  over  twenty  per  cent  in  the  feed  required 
for  a  pound  of  gain.  A  more  striking  economy  was 
effected  when  oil  meal  was  added  to  the  oat-straw 
ration.  The  coarser  roughages  are  seldom  used  with 
economy  in  fattening  sheep.  They  are  useful,  but  if 
alfalfa  or  clover  is  not  used,  the  grain  ration  must 
be  supplemented  to  supply  the  lack,  and  keeping 
sheep  eating  regularly  is  especially  difficult  when 
concentrates  are  the  main  reliance.  The  results  of 
the  second  test  give  the  rations  the  same  relative 
values,  though  the  differences  are  less  striking. 

Sorghum  hay.  —  Fattening  experiments  with  alfalfa 
and  sorghum  hay  show  about  the  same  difference  as 
between  corn  stover  and  alfalfa  and  a  similar  gain 
from  use  of  linseed  meal  with  the  ration  of  corn  and 
sorghum  hay. 

Silage.  —  Although  silage  was  for  some  time  con- 


Fattening  Sheep  253 

sidered  an  unsafe  feed  for  sheep,  it  has  an  important 
place  in  economical  sheep  husbandry.  Special  pre- 
cautions are  necessary  to  avoid  feeding  of  spoiled 
silage,  as  the  effects  of  deterioration  are  much  more 
pronounced  with  sheep  than  with  cattle.  Silage 
from  corn  rather  well  matured  is  desirable  for  sheep. 
Owing  to  the  sheep's  limited  capacity,  there  is  danger 
in  not  making  proper  allowance  for  the  grain  in  the 
silage,  especially  when  the  main  grain  ration  is  a 
liberal  one,  and  as  a  result  difficulties  arise  not  prop- 
erly attributable  to  the  silage.  In  most  of  the  sheep- 
feeding  experiments  in  which  silage  was  used,  it  was 
compared  with  roots.  At  the  Iowa  Station  a  ration 
of  2  pounds  grain,  1.6  pounds  alfalfa,  and  1.4  pounds 
silage  was  found  to  produce  the  same  gain  and  at  a 
much  lower  cost  than  the  same  grain  and  alfalfa 
with  4.3  pounds  mangels  in  place  of  1.4  pounds  silage. 
Silage  was  fed  at  the  Michigan  Station  in  tests  last- 
ing 119  days,  and  3.4  pounds  fed  daily  produced 
larger  and  cheaper  gains  than  5.Q  pounds  rutabagas. 
Fattening  lambs  on  rape.  —  There  are  exceptional 
possibilities  in  well-grown  rape  for  fattening  lambs, 
if  it  is  fed  with  proper  judgment  and  care.  It  may 
be  fed  to  best  advantage  in  the  early  fall,  and  hence 
is  of  valuable  assistance  in  fattening  lambs  for  the 
fall  or  early  winter  market.  It  supplies  a  vast 
amount  of  food  that  the  lambs  are  very  fond  of,  and 
as  it  withstands  drought  and  early  frost  better 
than  most  succulent  fodders,  it  is  a  crop  that  may  be 


254  Sheep-Farming 

relied  upon  with  at  least  common  certainty.  The 
first  trials  reported  with  rape  for  fattening  lambs 
were  made  in  England  about  1845.  Ten  wethers 
fed  on  rape  alone  from  August  10  to  September  21 
made  an  average  increase  in  the  six  weeks  of  20 
pounds,  or  2  pounds  per  head  weekly. 

The  most  extensive  trials  in  feeding  lambs  on 
rape  have  been  carried  on  at  the  Ontario  Experi- 
mental Farm.  In  1890,  54  acres  of  rape  pastured 
17  head  of  steers  and  537  sheep,  and  1  acre  of  the 
rape  sustained  12  lambs  for  two  months.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  food  provided  by  an  acre  of  rape 
was  worth  $16.80.  In  another  trial,  rape  alone  was 
fed  to  60  lambs,  and  they  were  kept  on  2.18  acres 
for  twenty-five  days,  during  which  time  they  in- 
creased in  weight  390  pounds,  or  an  average  weekly 
increase  per  head  of  1.82  pounds.  Again,  in  an 
experiment  on  one-sixth  of  an  acre,  6  lambs  were  kept 
for  forty-two  days,  and  from  this  it  is  concluded  that 
1  acre  would  have  pastured  36  lambs  two  months 
and  have  made  762  pounds  of  mutton. 

At  the  Michigan  Station,  15  acres  of  rape  pastured 
128  lambs  for  seven  and  one-half  weeks,  with  a  total 
gain  of  2890  pounds.  At  this  rate  it  is  estimated 
that  1  acre  would  pasture  9  lambs  seven  weeks, 
and  they  would  produce  202.5  pounds  of  increase. 
It  is  stated  that  the  field  would  unquestionably  have 
pastured  10  lambs  for  the  period  of  ten  weeks. 

Rape  and  pasture.  —  At  the  Ontario  Station  an 


Fattening  Sheep  255 

experiment  was  tried  in  feeding  rape  alone  against 
rape  and  pasturage.  Thirty  lambs  comprised  the 
two  lots,  the  one  being  put  on  an  acre  of  rape  and 
the  other  given  a  similar  amount  with  pasture. 
In  fifty-eight  days  both  lots  had  eaten  their  respective 
acres,  but  the  15  on  rape  alone  gained  an  average 
of  22.93  pounds  per  head,  and  those  receiving  rape 
and  pasture  28  pounds  per  head,  thus  showing  the 
advantage  of  having  pasturage  for  the  sheep  to 
graze  when  being  fed  on  rape. 

Precautions  necessary  in  feeding  rape.  —  When 
sheep  are  being  herded  on  rape,  there  is  danger  of 
bloating  or  diarrhea  from  excessive  eating.  Pastur- 
ing the  sheep  for  a  few  hours  previous  to  turning 
them  on  the  rape,  or  allowing  them  to  have  the  range 
of  a  small  piece  of  pasture  at  all  times,  will  assist 
in  preventing  these  troubles.  The  use  of  the  trocar 
and  cannula  is  the  most  eflScient  method  of  relieving 
bloat  in  urgent  cases,  while  in  mild  attacks  the 
giving  of  ammonia,  a  teaspoonful  in  three  times  as 
much  water,  will  usually  bring  relief. 

Shearing  lambs  before  fattening  them.  —  When 
lambs  are  being  fattened  early  in  the  fall  or  in  pre- 
paring them  for  winter  fattening,  it  is  a  profitable 
practice  to  shear  them  before  the  fattening  begins. 
At  the  Ontario  Experiment  Station,  10  lambs 
sheared  in  January  made  practically  the  same  gain 
in  weight  as  10  others  not  shorn  and  similarly  fed. 
At  the  Wisconsin  Station,  no    advantage  has  been 


256  Sheep-Farming 

found  from  shearing  in  December.  Those  shorn 
yielded  a  total  of  2  pounds  less  washed  wool  than 
the  others  and  made  a  total  gain  of  2.7  pounds  less 
than  the  wethers  that  were  not  shorn. 

Shearing  in  October.  —  It  was  found  decidedly  ben- 
eficial to  shear  lambs  in  this  month  before  fattening 
them.  Five  wethers  were  shorn  October  14  and  fed 
for  fifteen  weeks,  against  another  lot  of  5  left 
unshorn.  The  shorn  lot  gained  ^^^5.5  pounds  and 
the  unshorn  210.5  pounds,  or  an  average  weekly 
gain  per  head  of  3  pounds  for  the  shorn  and  2.8 
pounds  for  the  unshorn.  The  cost  of  100  pounds 
of  gain  was  $6.11  with  the  shorn  lot  and  $6.67  with 
the  unshorn.  In  another  trial  with  16  wethers, 
8  were  shorn  October  6,  and  the  same  number  left 
unshorn.  In  ten  weeks  feeding,  the  shorn  lot  gained 
194.4  pounds,  or  3.4  pounds  per  head  weekly,  while 
the  unshorn  lot  gained  169  pounds,  or  3  pounds  per 
head  w^eekly.  In  both  of  these  trials,  it  was  observed 
that  the  removal  of  the  fleece  hastened  the  early  matu- 
rity or  fattening  of  the  wethers  up  to  the  time  the  fleece 
had  again  grown  over  1  inch  in  length,  or  until 
about  eight  weeks  had  passed. 

System  of  feeding.  —  There  is  unlimited  variation 
in  general  practice  in  regard  to  this  point.  It  has 
been  the  custom  to  feed  the  grain  first,  then  the 
succulent  food,  and  last  the  dry  fodder.  In  feeding 
fattening  sheep,  the  aim  should  be  to  induce  the 
wethers  to  eat  as  much  as  possible.     At  this  time 


Fattening  Sheep  257 

they  should  receive  all  the  grain  they  will  eat  up 
eagerly.  To  secure  the  best  results,  it  is  a  good  plan, 
when  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  to  feed  the  grain  in  two 
or  even  three  feeds.  This  may  be  done  easily  when 
less  than  one  hundred  are  fed  together,  but  with  more 
than  that  it  is  not  a  commendable  plan.  By  feeding 
only  one-third  of  the  full  feed  intended,  it  is  easy  to 
gauge  the  appetites  of  the  wethers,  which  is  a  very 
important  matter.  The  smallest  degree  of  over- 
feeding is  certain  to  react  on  the  gain  of  the  sheep, 
for  in  some  instances  it  will  probably  cause  scouring, 
in  others  constipation,  and  it  may  even  result  in  the 
loss  of  some  of  the  lambs. 

Essentials  in  management.  —  There  are  two  essen- 
tials that  contribute  to  cheap  and  rapid  gains,  and 
these  are  quietness  and  confinement.  The  least 
excitement  brought  on  by  the  appearance  of  dogs, 
haste,  or  abuse  on  the  part  of  the  attendant  is  cer- 
tain to  be  shown  by  the  scales.  For  some  time  the 
Wisconsin  Station  used  yards  in  connection  with 
the  fattening  pens,  but  for  the  two  years  they  were 
removed,  better  results  seem  to  follow. 

Quantity  to  feed.  —  Careful  attention  must  be 
given  to  the  amount  of  grain  that  is  fed.  This  part 
of  the  ration  costs  most,  gives  the  quickest  returns, 
and  is  the  most  likely  to  produce  some  disorder  in 
the  digestion  of  the  sheep.  For  the  first  two  weeks, 
it  is  much  better  to  give  them  only  one-half  what 
they  need  than  to  feed  them  too  much;    especially 


258  Sheep-Farming 

is  this  true  if  over  fifty  sheep  are  being  fed  together. 
Starting  the  sheep  safely  and  well  on  a  ration  brings 
the  feeder's  skill  into  play,  particularly  if  the  sheep 
have  been  unaccustomed  to  grain.  There  are  some 
foods  that  are  safer  than  others  to  feed  at  the  begin- 
ning, and  among  these  oats  or  bran  have  a  general 
preference.  TMieat  is  comparatively  safe,  while 
corn  is  probably  the  most  dangerous  to  feed  alone. 
One  pound  per  head  daily  of  either  bran  or  oats 
is  liberal  feeding  for  sheep  that  are  accustomed  to 
grain,  and  a  slightly  smaller  quantity  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  those  that  have  not  been  accustomed  to 
it.  The  quantity  of  grain  may  be  gradually  in- 
creased as  the  capacity  of  the  sheep  to  consume  it 
becomes  greater.  The  careful  and  successful  feeder 
trains  his  sheep  to  eat  with  as  much  carefulness  as 
the  trainer  teaches  a  colt  to  trot.  It  is  safe  to 
assume  that  wethers  at  this  age  may  be  fed  all  the 
grain  that  they  will  eat,  as  it  is  usual  for  them  to 
profitably  utilize  it  in  making  gain,  unless  they  are 
unhealthy  or  the  management  is  defective.  It  is 
a  hard  matter  to  estimate  the  amount  of  grain  to 
feed,  owing  to  the  variation  in  the  consuming  ca- 
pacity of  sheep.  In  starting,  from  .5  pound  to  1  pound 
may  be  fed.  A  month  later  the  wether  will  prob- 
ably be  taking  1.5  to  2  pounds,  and  during  the  last 
month  from  2  to  3  pounds  per  head  has  been  the 
capacity  of  most  of  the  sheep. 

Cost  and  value  of   the    increase.  —  In   comparing 


Fattening  Sheep  259 

foods  for  fattening  sheep,  it  has  been  the  custom  to 
compare  them  on  the  basis  of  the  cost  of  100  pounds 
of  gain,  overlooking  the  increased  value  per  pound 
that  the  sheep  realizes  in  the  market  because  of 
the  improvement  that  has  been  made  during  the 
feeding  period.  It  is  but  a  moderate  advance  to 
consider  that  sheep  that  are  bought  as  feeders  at 
5  cents  per  pound  will  bring  6  cents  per  pound  when 
sold  after  fattening.  In  estimating  the  profits  from 
any  ration,  the  ration  should  be  credited  with  this 
increased  value  per  pound  of  the  sheep. 

Buying  sheep  to  fatten.  —  The  profits  of  buying 
and  fattening  sheep  depend  upon  two  things :  the 
cost  of  the  gains  and  the  difference  between  the 
buying  and  selling  price,  or  the  margin.  If  feed  is 
high  and  gains  therefore  expensive,  a  wide  margin 
will  be  required.  If  there  is  a  wide  difference  be- 
tween buying  and  selling  prices,  there  may  be  a 
profit  even  though  the  amount  of  weight  put  on 
when  sold  should  not  repay  the  cost  of  the  feeding. 
The  increased  value  of  the  purchased  weight  in  such 
a  case  amounts  to  more  than  the  gains  lacked  of 
paying  for  the  feed  eaten. 

The  success  of  speculative  feeding  depends  upon 
the  ability  brought  to  bear  in  buying  the  feeders. 
The  buyer  must  select  sheep  that  will  gain  economi- 
cally and  sell  well  when  finished.  He  must  also  se- 
cure them  at  such  a  price  as  to  have  a  fair  chance  of  re- 
ceiving a  satisfactory  margin  over  the  purchase  price. 


260  Sheep-Farming 

A  smaller  margin  is  needed  to  insure  a  profit 
when  sheep  sell  at  high  prices  than  when  they  are 
low.  This  is  true  even  though  the  purchase  price 
is  also  high.  If  the  finished  sheep  are  also  sold  at 
high  prices,  then  there  has  been  a  greater  return 
received  for  the  weight  put  on  in  feeding  and  a 
security  against  loss  in  the  feeding  itself.  If,  at  the 
same  time,  the  cost  of  feed  was  less  than  the  selling 
value  of  the  increased  weight,  then  the  outlay  and 
feed  expense  would  be  recovered  even  if  the  selling 
price  was  lower  than  the  purchased  price. 

This  is  shown  in  the  italicized  figures  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  from  Ohio  Bulletin  No.  179.  The  lower 
left-hand  figure,  6.638,  is  the  selling  price  that  would 
repay  the  entire  outlay  in  a  case  in  which  sheep 
were  bought  at  $7.50  per  hundredweight  and  fed 
upon  hay  at  $6  per  ton  and  corn  at  45  cents  per 
bushel.  The  table  assumes  a  consumption  of  5 
pounds  roughage,  4  pounds  grain  for  each  pound  of 
increase.  Lambs  bought  at  the  same  price  and  fed 
upon  feed  valued  at  the  highest  figures  shown  would 
return  their  cost  selling  at  5  cents  per  hundred 
below  the  original  cost.  In  the  case  of  the  lower 
value  and  expensive  feeds,  a  margin  of  $1.35  is  nec- 
essary to  prevent  loss. 


Fattening  Sheep 


261 


Effect  of  Varying  Values  of  Feeds  and  Feeder  Lambs  on 
Cost  of  Fat  Lambs 


Hay  per  Ton 

Assumed 

Values 

OP  Feeds 

$6 

$9 

$12 

$9 

$9 

$6 

$12 

Com  per  Bushel 

.45 

.45 

.45 

.30 

.60 

.30 

.60 

Assumed 

Home 
Price  per 
cwT.  paid 
FOR  Feed- 
er Lambs 


$3.00 
3.50 
4.00 
4.50 
5.00 
5.50 
6.00 
6.50 
7.00 
7.50 


Price  at  which  Fat  Lambs  must  sell  per  Himdredweight  at  Home  to 
pay  for  Feeder  Lambs  and  Feed  used  on  Basis  of  Assumed  Price. 


3.546 
3.890 
4.234 
4.577 

5.26It 
5.608 
5.951 
6.295 
6.638 


3.783 

4.020 

3.446 

4.121 

3.209 

4.127 

4.363 

3.789 

4.464 

3.553 

4.470 

4.707 

4.133 

4.808 

3.896 

4.814 

5.050 

U76 

5.151 

4.240 

5.157 

5.394 

J^.820 

5.495 

4.583 

5.501 

5.737 

5.163 

5.838 

4.927 

5.8U 

6.081 

5.507 

6.182 

5.270 

6.188 

6.m 

5.850 

6.525 

5.6I4 

6.531 

6.768 

6.19^ 

6.869 

5.957 

6.875 

7.111 

6.537 

7.212 

6.301 

4.357 
4.701 
5.044 
5.388 
5.731 
6.075 
6.418 
6.762 
7.105 
7.449 


CHAPTER  XIV 
PREPARATION  OF  SHEEP  FOR  SHOW 

It  cannot  be  considered  otherwise  than  proper  to 
have  animals  that  are  to  be  exhibited  appear  at  their 
best  by  legitimate  means,  but  in  such  methods  as 
trimming  the  sheep  into  shape,  felting  the  wool  with 
hot  irons,  staining  it  with  dyes,  and  kindred  practices 
that  enter  into  the  preparation  of  sheep  for  show, 
there  is  unlimited  scope  for  deception.  In  trimming, 
the  shears  are  made  to  do  the  work  that  should  be 
done  by  breeding,  and  through  coloring  and  oiling 
the  novice  is  likely  to  believe  that  the  sheep  has 
qualities  which  it  does  not  naturally  possess. 

In  selecting  sheep  for  show  and  getting  them  into 
the  condition,  bloom,  and  general  appearance  to 
show  their  good  qualities,  there  is  much  that  calls 
for  the  shepherd's  skill.  The  discussion  which 
follows  is  from  the  pen  of  the  late  William  Watson, 
whose  success  in  the  show  ring  with  stock  from 
Turlington  Farm  was  well  known  some  years  ago. 

Importance  of  breeding.  —  It  is  important  to 
select  the  best-bred  sheep  for  exhibition  purposes. 
As  a  rule,  it  is  aimless  labor  to  attempt  to  prepare 
underbred    animals.     A    complete    equipment    for 

262 


Preparation  of  Sheep  for  Show  263 

this  work  is  only  secured  by  progressive  breeding 
and  the  purchase  of  superior  animals.  To  insure 
success,  these  factors  must  be  further  strengthened 
by  skill,  taste,  and  judgment. 

Time  of  birth.  —  In  beginning  this  work,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  have  a  number  of  early  lambs  from  which 
to  make  a  selection ;  though,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  quite  possible  to  have  them  dropped  too  early  in 
the  season  for  the  best  results.  When  the  lambs 
have  been  weaned  too  early,  they  become  coarse 
and  lose  the  fineness  of  fleece  and  the  peculiar  style 
that  is  characteristic  of  lambs  by  the  time  they  are 
to  be  shown.  For  these  reasons,  judgment  must  be 
used  in  respect  to  the  age  of  the  lamb  selected  for 
training.  It  is  not  advisable  to  select  early  lambs 
merely  for  their  advantage  in  size,  for  this  is  usually 
considered  by  judges  to  be  secondary  to  quality. 

Large  number  needed.  —  Show  sheep  must  be 
matched;  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  a 
larger  number  than  is  actually  needed  from  which 
to  make  the  final  choice.  Twice  as  many  should  be 
included  in  the  first  draft  as  are  actually  required, 
and  they  should  be  treated  alike.  It  is  possible 
that  some  may  die;  some  become  foundered  or 
perhaps  grow  coarse. 

Matching  sheep.  —  In  the  selection  of  show  sheep, 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  much  care  in  matching  them.  The  influence 
of  this  is  illustrated  by  the  following  experience : 


264  Sheep-Farming 

"In  1847  I  showed  ten  Southdown  ewes  from  my 
father's  Keillor  flock  at  the  Highland  Society's 
show  at  Aberdeen.  I  was  anxious  to  win  both  first 
and  second  prizes  and  to  displace  a  worthy  opponent, 
the  late  Duke  of  Richmond.  In  striving  to  do  this, 
the  ten  ewes  were  divided  into  two  pens  of  equal 
merit  instead  of  making  one  superior  pen  and  another 
inferior  to  it.  The  outcome  was  the  loss  of  the 
first  prize  and  the  gain  of  the  second.  James  Crisp, 
the  celebrated  breeder  of  Shorthorns,  was  one  of  the 
judges.  Meeting  him  afterwards,  I  asked  him  the 
reason  for  the  award.  His  answer  was,  'Young 
man,  you  divided  the  goodness  ;  otherwise,  you  could 
have  easily  won  the  first  prize.' "  This  is  one  of 
the  most  common  sheep-yard  mistakes  inimical  to 
the  exhibitor's  interests. 

Shed  or  field  feeding.  —  In  preparing  show  sheep, 
there  is  a  choice  between  house  and  open-air  feeding. 
I  have  found  that  sheep  kept  in  the  open  air  with  an 
abundance  of  sweet  herbage  and  other  feed  seem 
more  contented  than  those  confined,  and  the  mor- 
tality is  decidedly  less;  but  my  preference  is  for 
house  feeding,  because  the  wool  may  be  brought 
to  a  higher  state  of  perfection  and  that  is  always  a 
very  material  point  with  the  judges.  Sheep  intended 
for  exhibition  should  be  housed  early.  There  is  a 
difference  of  opinion  among  exhibitors  whether  late 
or  early  shearing  is  best,  but  this  is  dependent  on 
the  breed  of  sheep.     Those  with  long  wool  should 


Preparation  of  Sheep  for  Show  265 

be  shorn  early,  while  the  Downs  do  better  if  shorn 
later. 

Attention  to  the  feet,  —  The  housed  sheep  should 
have  a  regular  supply  of  litter  to  keep  their  wool 
unstained  and  their  feet  sound.  To  further  assist 
in  doing  this,  some  shepherds  allow  their  show  sheep 
to  run  on  pasture  for  an  hour  or  so  in  the  morning 
and  also  in  the  evening,  but  as  a  rule,  it  is  best  not 
to  disturb  the  sheep  in  this  way.  The  feet  of  the 
sheep  should  be  trimmed  periodically,  and  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  paring  too  deeply.  The 
tread  should  always  be  on  the  sole  of  the  foot,  which 
will  remain  sound  if  the  outer  edges  are  properly 
pared.  Neglect  paring  and  the  superabundant 
growth  doubles  under  the  foot  and  incloses  filth. 
This  predisposes  the  sheep  to  foot  rot,  which  always 
results  in  a  loss  of  flesh.  It  is  an  important  matter 
for  stock  in  the  show  arena  to  stand  level  on  their 
feet,  and  this  depends  greatly  on  the  care  taken  in 
the  use  of  the  paring  knife. 

Variety  of  foods  required.  —  Sheep  should  be  fed 
the  best  of  everything  that  is  in  season,  whether  it  is 
rape,  clover,  tares,  thousand-headed  kale,  or  cabbage ; 
all  of  these  may  be  grown  to  perfection  in  the  greater 
portion  of  this  country  and  at  least  some  of  them  in 
all  regions.  In  addition,  a  continued  variety  of 
food  should  be  given,  including  such  as  linseed  cake, 
beans,  peas,  bran,  oats,  barley,  wheat  and  lentils, 
or  locust  beans.     No  definite  rule  can  be  given  for 


266  Sheep-Farming 

mixing  these,  but  none  of  them  should  be  fed  in 
any  quantity  alone.  By  giving  a  wide  variety  of 
foods,  it  is  not  possible  to  secure  the  most  economical 
gain,  though  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  most 
rapid  gains  are  made  by  these  means. 

Sustaining  the  appetite.  —  The  chief  secret  of 
successfully  feeding  show  animals  is  to  make  them 
relish  their  food.  If  their  appetites  fail,  at  once 
make  a  change.  The  substitution  of  one  variety 
of  meal  for  another  will  generally  give  the  desired 
stimulus  to  a  sickly  appetite.  Oftentimes  it  may  be 
advisable  to  also  reduce  the  ration  until  they  will 
eat  it  again  with  a  relish. 

Feeding  during  summer.  —  It  is  difficult  to  feed 
successfully  during  the  hot  season;  yet  it  can  be 
done  and  the  sheep  kept  on  full  rations.  The  sheep 
that  I  prepared  for  show  during  the  summer  of  1891 
were  housed  during  the  hot  period.  They  were 
first  fed  at  sunrise,  and  at  that  time  they  would 
eat  greedily ;  at  nine  in  the  morning  they  were  again 
fed,  and  their  appetites  were  closely  watched  and 
encouraged  at  times  by  an  extra  handful.  At 
twelve  o'clock  they  were  allowed  a  few  roots,  cab- 
bages, or  freshly  cut  clover.  These  were  cooling  and 
they  ate  them  heartily.  As  the  heat  decreased  by 
four  o'clock,  they  were  then  given  a  small  grain  ra- 
tion, followed  by  roots,  cabbage,  or  clover.  After 
resting  until  seven  o'clock,  they  were  fed  as  much 
grain  and  roots  as  they  would  relish.     The  doors  of 


Preparation  of  Sheep  for  Show  267 

the  pen  were  opened  so  that  each  lot  went  by  turns 
into  the  exercising  paddocks.  At  this  time,  their 
pens  were  littered  with  fresh  straw  and  sedulous 
attention  given  to  the  cleanliness  of  the  feed  and 
water  troughs.  The  last  meal  was  given  at  nine 
o'clock;  the  temperature  being  cool,  they  ate  with 
keen  appetite.  They  had  grain  and  a  few  cabbages. 
Some  sweet  hay  was  left  in  their  racks  and  fresh 
water  put  in  their  troughs,  as  they  drank  freely 
during  the  night.  With  this  treatment,  and  by 
feeding  small  quantities  frequently,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  sheep  will  take  their  full  ration  at  this  season. 
Some  of  our  most  successful  exhibitors  have  obtained 
the  best  results  from  feeding  their  sheep  food  in  a 
sloppy  condition  during  the  heat  of  summer.  If 
this  is  done,  careful  attention  must  be  given  to  the 
feed  boxes  that  they  may  not  become  sour. 

Overfeeding  possible.  —  In  fitting  animals  for  exhi- 
bition, it  is  necessary  to  be  cautious  in  regard  to 
feeding  them  heavily.  Begin  early  to  train  them 
to  eat  by  increasing  the  amount  of  feed  gradually. 
Heavy  feeding  on  a  rich  ration  without  preparation 
for  it  is  apt  to  bring  on  some  digestive  troubles  that 
will  materially  check  the  progress  of  the  sheep. 
Owing  to  this  fact,  some  feeders  (A.  Mansell,  "  Forma- 
tion Pure  Bred  Flocks,"  page  15)  will  not  use  peas  or 
beans,  it  being  claimed  that  these  produce  derange- 
ments of  the  system,  which  become  evident  in  weak 
legs  and  a  shrunken  appearance  of  the  body.     This 


268  Sheep-Farming 

is  stated  to  be  more  likely  to  occur  in  instance  of 
lambs.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  feeding  of  such 
food  as  beans  also  produces  a  feverish  condition 
of  the  system,  and  that  many  of  the  casualties 
attending  the  showing  of  fat  sheep  have  been  due 
to  this.  The  barrenness  of  show  ewes  has  been 
attributed  to  the  same  cause,  and  for  this  reason, 
some  feeders  prefer  to  rely  on  such  foods  as  tares, 
oil  cake,  barley,  and  oats.  I  can  say  that  during  my 
experience  of  over  fifty  years  in  preparing  show 
sheep,  I  have  fed  most  liberally  of  beans,  peas,  and 
locust  beans,  and  I  have  only  observed  one  instance 
of  any  bad  effects  resulting  from  feeding  them.  I 
also  know  that  John  Webb  followed  a  similar  prac- 
tice and  that  Mr.  Hersel,  the  shepherd  of  the  Duke 
of  Richmond  and  the  best  feeder  of  my  acquaintance, 
fed  his  prize  winners  on  oats,  oil  cake,  and  beans. 
Only  on  one  occasion  during  my  long  experience  has 
barrenness  resulted  from  feeding  ewes  for  show,  and 
that  was  when  four  out  of  seven  yearlings  that  I 
had  fed  on  locust  beans  became  unfertile.  To  be 
safe  in  this  matter,  it  may  be  best  to  assume  that 
the  use  of  beans  should  be  limited  in  extent,  espe- 
cially as  it  is  possible  to  prepare  breeding  sheep  for 
show  without  the  use  of  such  foods. 

How  Smithfield  winners  were  fed.  —  Some  years 
ago  a  neighbor  of  mine  in  Scotland,  Mr.  David 
Buttar  of  Corston,  the  celebrated  Shropshire  breeder, 
exhibited  a  pen  of  fat  wethers  at  Smithfield  and  won 


Preparation  of  Sheep  for  Show  269 

the  first  prize  with  them.  The  details  of  the  manage- 
ment of  these  sheep  are  as  follows :  They  were  the 
choice  of  three  hundred  fat  lambs  sired  by  Shrop- 
shire rams  and  out  of  half-bred  ewes  that  were  kept 
at  great  expense  to  make  both  ewes  and  lambs  ready 
for  selling  early  in  the  season.  After  being  taken 
from  the  ewes,  the  lambs  were  put  on  good  grass, 
with  access  to  the  shed,  where  oil  cake,  cotton  cake, 
corn,  and  oats  were  supplied  them.  These  feeding 
stuffs  were  mixed  indiscriminately,  the  chief  aim 
being  to  make  the  sheep  eat  as  much  as  possible. 
No  condiments,  sugar,  molasses,  or  milk  were  given. 
During  the  winter  the  sheep  received  a  good  abun- 
dance of  good  Swedish  turnips,  cut  in  troughs  and 
fed  with  the  same  artificial  food  before  mentioned. 
They  were  allowed  to  take  exercise  at  will.  Early 
in  the  spring,  some  grass  was  given  them  in  troughs 
in  the  shed.  They  were  clipped  moderately  close 
in  April,  then  washed  and  trimmed.  At  the  end  of 
July  they  were  shown  at  the  Highland  Society's 
show  and  afterwards  at  Smithfield,  and  at  both  these 
they  were  the  champions  of  their  classes. 

How  Chicago  winners  were  fed.  —  In  my  experi- 
ence, the  continued  feeding  of  condiments  has  been 
unsatisfactory.  I  have  obtained  the  best  results 
in  feeding  show  sheep  by  giving  them  nutritious 
food,  such  as  linseed  cake,  bruised  oats,  cotton  cake, 
barley,  and  corn.  These  foods  varied  and  used  along 
with  roots,  hay,  grass,  or  cabbage  have  been  the 


270  Sheep-Farming 

most  satisfactory.  The  use  of  such  substances  as 
treacle  is  to  be  condemned.  It  will  be  observed 
that  I  have  not  given  the  extra  weights  of  the  various 
foods  that  they  have  been  fed.  I  made  it  a  practice 
to  be  governed  by  judgment  without  the  assistance 
of  scales  when  feeding  sheep  for  show.  One  excep- 
tion occurred  in  1892,  when  a  pen  of  wethers  was 
being  prepared  for  exhibition  that  fall.  Desiring 
to  make  all  the  circumstances  as  favorable  as  possible 
for  winning  some  important  prizes  with  this  pen, 
Professor  Craig  was  consulted  as  to  the  proper 
selection  of  foods  to  make  a  good  ration.  The  fol- 
lowing was  submitted :  three  pounds  clover  hay, 
one-half  pound  oats,  one-half  pound  oil  cake,  one- 
fourth  pound  corn,  one-fourth  pound  wheat.  It 
may  be  mentioned  that  the  nutritive  ratio  of  this  is 
about  1 : 5,  which  is  considered  a  proper  proportion 
for  fattening  sheep.  The  feeding  of  this  gave  excel- 
lent results,  and  it  contributed  in  a  large  degree  to 
the  merits  of  the  pen  of  wethers  that  were  the 
champions  at  the  Chicago  Fat  Stock  Show  in  1892. 
Use  of  jackets.  —  Jackets  should  always  be  used 
after  early  shearing,  as  they  will  help  to  improve 
the  fleece  in  point  of  cleanliness  and  firmness.  The 
best  material  to  use  is  strong  muslin  or  light  sail- 
cloth. The  jackets  should  extend  along  the  body 
and  completely  cover  the  sides.  The  ends  that  meet 
in  front  of  the  bosom  should  be  sewed  together  and 
an  opening  should  be  left  for  the  sheep's  neck  and 


Preparation  of  Sheep  for  Show  271 

head.  To  keep  the  jacket  from  sliding  forward,  a 
loop  should  be  made  to  pass  under  the  tail  and  the 
hind  flanks. 

Washing  before  trimming.  —  With  the  exception 
of  Southdowns,  all  sheep  should  be  washed  before 
they  are  trimmed.  It  is  not  advisable  to  wash  sheep 
of  any  breed  more  than  twice.  Always  choose 
a  bright  forenoon  for  washing,  so  as  to  lessen  the 
possibility  of  a  chill.  Soft  soap  and  water  rather 
slightly  tepid  may  be  used  freely,  and  the  rinsing 
done  afterwards  with  clean  water.  A  week  should 
elapse  between  the  washing  and  trimming  of  ewes 
to  give  the  wool  time  to  set.  If  trimmed  before 
this,  it  is  likely  that  holes  will  be  left  in  the  fleece, 
and  these  will  be  difficult  to  remove. 

Stubble  shearing.  —  Blocking  the  sheep  out  of  the 
old  wool  is  often  done,  but  it  is  usually  unsatisfactory 
in  results.  A  discriminating  judge  detects  it  readily 
and  generally  renders  judgment,  discouraging  the 
practice  in  the  show  ring.  This  deception  may  be 
easily  discovered  and  should  at  once  be  condemned 
by  the  judge.  The  old  wool  that  has  been  left  on 
the  sheep  is  clearly  shown  by  its  dark  gray  color. 

Trimming.  —  This  preparation  has  for  its  aim  the 
smoothening  of  the  sheep's  fleece  and  the  hiding  of 
any  defects  in  its  form.  The  fleece  of  the  Down 
breeds  supplies  the  best  material  for  the  trimmer's 
art ;  hence  it  reaches  the  greatest  perfection  amongst 
breeders  of  such  sheep.     It  is  very  necessary  that 


272  Sheep-Farming 

the  trimmer  thoroughly  understands  the  model  of 
the  breed  he  is  preparing  for  exhibition,  and  knowing 
this,  he  must  clearly  adhere  to  it  as  a  pattern  for  the 
sheep  he  is  treating.  In  starting  to  trim,  the  belly 
wool  should  be  leveled  first.  This  is  necessary  so 
that  the  wool  on  the  sheep's  back  may  not  be 
roughened  after  it  is  trimmed.  When  trimming 
the  belly,  also  pare  the  feet.  In  trimming,  always 
dampen  the  wool,  so  that  no  shear  marks  will  be 
observable.  Begin  the  work  by  letting  the  sheep 
stand  in  a  perfectly  natural  position  w^hen  held  by 
an  assistant ;  then  proceed  to  cut  the  tail  head  and 
carry  the  line  straight  along  the  back.  This  is  done 
by  reducing  any  elevation  in  the  outline  and  leaving 
the  hollows  untouched.  In  treating  the  sides,  com- 
mence at  the  shoulders  and  work  gradually  down- 
ward to  the  belly.  Be  content  with  giving  the  de- 
sired shape  in  the  first  trimming,  and  as  the  wool 
grows  take  the  opportunity  to  give  the  final  shaping 
and  smoothening.  Always  be  careful  to  work  the 
shears  backwards  on  the  same  region,  so  as  to  remove 
the  slightest  shear  mark.  After  finishing  the  body, 
shape  the  head,  neck,  and  bosom  in  a  similar  manner. 
Carding  fleece.  —  After  the  sheep  has  been 
trimmed  into  the  desired  form,  and  before  much 
smoothening  has  been  done,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  take 
a  fine  wire-toothed  comb  and  tear  the  fleece  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  leave  it  in  a  much  rougher  plight 
than  it  was  before  the  work  was  commenced.     By 


r%»s 


Fig.  52.  — (Page  273.) 


Fig.  53.  — (Page  273.) 
Plate  XXII.     Carding  the  Fleece  before  Trimming. 


Preparation  of  Sheep  for  Show  273 

this  means  all  floss  is  pulled  to  the  surface,  and  after 
the  sheep  is  again  trimmed,  the  coat  is  smooth  and 
it  will  keep  so  for  months.  In  the  work  of  trimming, 
a  strong  open  brush  is  of  much  assistance.  It  may 
be  employed  to  much  advantage  in  dampening  the 
fleece  as  well  as  in  bringing  the  irregular  fibers  to 
the  surface.  A  damp  piece  of  flannel  may  be  used 
to  excellent  advantage  by  rubbing  the  fleece  with  it, 
as  it  assists  in  removing  the  loose  fibers  and  also 
in  cleansing  the  fleece. 

In  Figs.  52,  53,  PL  XXII,  the  loose  ends  and  un- 
even parts  of  the  dampened  fleece  have  been  brought 
out.  In  this  case,  an  ordinary  currycomb  is  being 
used,  though  the  card  is  preferable.  In  Fig.  54,  PI. 
XXIII,  the  back  is  being  leveled,  and  the  sides 
trimmed  in  Fig.  55. 

Frequency  of  trimming.  —  After  the  first  trimming, 
the  sheep  should  be  trimmed  once  a  fortnight  until 
the  work  is  complete.  Within  a  week  or  so  of  the 
exhibition,  the  final  trimming  should  be  given,  and 
the  last  light  trimming  just  previous  to  the  time  for 
the  show. 

Oiling  the  fleece.  —  During  the  trimming,  the  fleece 
of  the  sheep  should  be  oiled  slightly,  and  this  should 
be  repeated  before  starting  on  the  show  circuit. 
It  is  best  accomplished  by  taking  a  wine  glass  of 
olive  oil  to  one-half  an  ordinary  pail  of  water.  The 
water  should  be  heated  to  100°  Fahrenheit,  as  the 
oil  globules  disperse  much  better  in  warm  water. 


274  Sheep-Farming 

Stir  the  mixture  well,  then  with  the  hand  apply  the 
liquid  over  the  body  and  back  of  the  sheep,  patting 
the  fleece  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  until  the  wool 
has  a  soft,  silky  feeling.  One  dressing  will  usually 
prove  sufficient.  A  light  jacket  should  be  placed 
on  the  sheep  at  once  to  prevent  dust  adhering  to  the 
wool  after  it  has  been  oiled. 

Firming  the  fleece.  —  Flat  board  pressure  is  often 
used  on  medium-wooled  sheep  to  level  and  compress 
the  wool  on  their  backs.  It  assists  in  making  the 
fleece  appear  level  and  mellovv^,  yet  firm  to  the  touch. 
A  limber  piece  of  board  about  the  size  of  an  ordi- 
nary shingle  is  excellent  for  this  purpose.  The  sheep 
is  gently  beaten  over  all  parts,  especially  on  the  back, 
with  the  board,  and  special  care  is  taken  not  to  over- 
look any  part  of  the  body. 

Trimming  long-wooled  sheep.  —  Although  trimming 
is  not  so  noticeable  in  the  sheep  of  the  long-wooled 
breeds,  it  is  extensively  practiced.  When  I  left 
Great  Britain  in  1865,  the  Border  Leicesters  were 
clipped  and  trimmed  with  care.  In  those  days, 
stubble  shearing  was  much  resorted  to  in  these 
breeds,  but  latterly  it  has  been  prohibited.  The 
Lincolns,  Che\^ots,  and  Cotswolds  at  that  time 
underwent  treatment  by  smearing  with  ocher,  and 
they  also  were  trimmed. 

Treatment  of  long-wooled  fleeces.  —  The  fleeces  of 
the  long-wooled  breeds  may  be  greatly  improved  by 
prudent  trimming  and  the  use  of  soft  soap  and  water. 


Preparation  of  Sheep  for  Show  275 

When  the  wool  is  deficient  in  crimp  in  these  breeds, 
this  feature  may  be  produced  artificially  by  the 
application  of  sour  milk  that  has  not  reached  the 
curdled  stage  to  the  fleece  when  it  is  dry.  Sour 
milk  has  long  been  used  for  this  purpose.  When 
ten  years  of  age,  I  learned  it  from  my  father's 
shepherd,  Thomas  Logan,  who  stated  that  his 
father,  shepherd  to  the  famous  Culley  in  Nor- 
thumberland, had  taught  it  to  him. 

Process  of  felting.  —  Another  method  of  improving 
the  fleece  of  show  sheep  consists  of  felting  the  wool 
with  hot  irons.  First  reduce  the  wool  on  the  backs 
of  the  sheep  to  the  desired  length,  bearing  in  mind 
the  shorter  the  wool,  the  more  satisfactory  will  be 
the  handling.  Previous  to  felting  the  wool,  it  should 
be  slightly  oiled,  and  a  clean  cloth  spread  over  the 
sheep's  back.  A  hot  iron  is  now  applied  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  ironing  cloth.  It  is  astonishing  how 
the  felting  or  ironing  process  improves  the  fineness 
of  the  fleeces  of  some  sheep,  while  they  at  the  same 
time  retain  the  elasticity  sought  for  by  the  judge. 
It  is  especially  effective  in  imparting  these  qualities 
to  fleeces  that  are  light  yet  fine  in  quality. 

Coloring.  —  This  is  the  art  of  staining  the  wool 
on  the  sheep  so  as  to  improve  the  appearance  of  the 
animal.  It  is  quite  generally  practiced  by  exhibitors 
in  Great  Britain,  but  has  not  been  followed  to  any 
great  extent  in  this  country.  There  are  various 
ways  of  applying  it.     Some  shepherds  use  a  syringe 


276  Sheep-Farming 

or  a  sprinkler,  others  put  it  on  by  hand,  and  many 
brush  the  coloring  into  the  wool  or  dust  it  in  by  use  of 
a  large  pepper  box.  In  brushing  it  into  the  fleece, 
the  touch  should  be  light,  and  in  using  the  pepper  box, 
care  should  be  taken  to  note  that  the  dry  powder 
does  not  come  out  too  freely. 

Material  used  for  coloring.  —  The  substances  used 
for  coloring  medium-wooled  sheep  are  usually  red 
and  yellow  ocher,  burned  umber,  or  insect  powder  at 
certain  seasons.  They  may  be  used  in  solution  or 
applied  in  a  semiliquid  condition  with  water  or  oil. 
The  latter  application  may  be  objected  to  because 
it  forms  a  crust  and  makes  a  surface  of  the  wool  hard 
to  trim.  It  has  been  my  practice  to  use  the  pepper 
box  and  apply  a  mixture  of  yellow  ocher  and  burnt 
umber.  It  should  be  used  lightly,  thereby  giving  a 
natural  tint  to  the  wool.  In  using  a  pepper  box,  it 
is  necessary  to  observe  that  the  wool  is  very  dry; 
otherwise,  if  the  coloring  matter  drops  too  heavily 
on  any  spot,  it  makes  an  unsightly  blemish  that 
cannot  be  blended  with  the  rest.  Another  system 
of  coloring  medium-wooled  sheep  consists  in  the 
application  of  lamp  black  and  palm  oil.  It  should 
be  rubbed  on  gently  with  the  palm  of  the  hand,  care 
being  taken  not  to  make  the  application  too  dark. 
An  emulsion  of  Irish  moss  and  olive  oil  is  also  ex- 
cellent dressing  for  Southdowns.  Steep  the  moss  for 
two  hours,  and  in  mixing  it,  proportion  the  oil  so  that 
none  of  it  will  rise  to  the  top.     WTien  mixed  in  proper 


Fig.  54.  —  Leveling  the  back.     (Page  273.) 


Fig.  55.  —  Trimming  the  sides.     (Page  273.) 
Plate  XXIII.     Leveling  and  Trimming  the  Fleece. 


Preparation  of  Sheep  for  Show  277 

proportions,  these  ingredients  form  a  soft  paste  which 
is  easily  applied  to  the  fleece.  It  is  advisable  for  a 
beginner  to  make  his  first  trial  of  these  methods  on 
a  sheep  that  is  not  intended  for  show.  The  prac- 
tice of  trimming  and  coloring,  when  carried  to  excess, 
should  be  condemned.  It  may  be  said  that  it  is 
legitimate  to  improve  the  fleece  as  far  as  it  is  possi- 
ble to  do  so  without  altering  the  natural  form  of  the 
sheep,  but  by  means  of  oiling  and  coloring  serious 
defects  in  the  fleece  are  changed  into  excellencies, 
and  gross  deception  originates.  It  is  hoped  by  the 
writer  that  this  explanation  of  these  practices  will 
speedily  assist  their  curtailment. 

After'treatment  of  show  sheep.  —  When  breeding 
sheep  return  from  the  shows,  their  after-treatment 
is  a  matter  of  much  consideration.  The  aim  should 
be  to  reduce  them  in  flesh  by  means  of  easy  exercise 
and  not  by  any  marked  reduction  of  their  rations. 
A  few  hours'  exercise  each  day  will  soon  strengthen 
them  so  that  they  will  be  able  to  remain  out  con- 
tinually. In  some  cases  in  which  the  fattening  has 
been  carried  to  extremes,  it  may  be  necessary  when 
the  sheep  return  to  give  them  a  mild  purge.  As  a 
rule,  exercise  with  a  limited  reduction  of  the  grain 
ration  will  be  sufficient  to  bring  them  back  to  normal 
condition.  In  reducing  the  fleshiness  of  the  sheep,  it 
is  necessary  to  watch  their  progress  closely;  for  it 
becomes  a  very  hard  matter  to  restore  them  if  they 
are  permitted  to  become  too  low  in  condition. 


CHAPTER  XV 
DISEASES 

Keeping  in  mind  that  this  manual  is  designed  for 
flockowners  the  majority  of  whom  have  no  technical 
medical  knowledge,  only  such  ailments  and  disorders 
will  be  discussed  as  the  intelligent  jflockmaster  can 
detect  from  descriptions,  and  treat,  when  treatment 
is  practical,  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  success.  The 
deeply  hidden  and  complicated  constitutional  dis- 
orders will  be  left  for  special  medical  works. 

Parasitism.  —  Sheep  suffer  to  a  far  greater  extent 
from  parasites  than  all  other  ailments  combined. 
Could  the  external  and  internal  parasites  of  sheep 
be  annihilated,  sheep  and  their  owners  would  have 
nearly  all  their  troubles  removed.  The  sheep  more 
than  any  other  domestic  animal  suffers  from  internal 
parasites.  There  are  two  invading  the  lungs,  two  the 
stomach,  a  half-dozen  the  intestine,  one  the  liver,  and 
two,  in  the  cyst  form,  the  brain. 

Gidf  turn-sickness,  or  sturdy.  —  The  cysts  invading 
the  brain  and  accredited  with  producing  gid  are  a 
transitional  form  of  a  tapeworm  which  in  its  adult 
stage  is  found  in  the  dog  and  other  canine  species. 
The  symptoms  of  this  ailment  are  nervous  twitching 

278 


Diseases  279 

about  the  head,  an  unnatural  elevation  and  tossing 
of  the  head  to  one  side,  pressing  against  racks  or 
other  obstacles,  or  moving  in  a  circle.  In  advanced 
stages,  the  affected  sheep  falls  over  and  with  head 
thrown  back  it  struggles  until  death  relieves  it. 

I  do  not  consider  any  treatment,  either  surgical 
or  medicinal,  of  any  practical  benefit,  although  I  am 
familiar  with  the  oft-advised  surgical  operation  of 
trephining.  As  the  trouble  is  purely  a  local  one  in 
the  brain  and  certainly  in  the  earliest  stages  in  no 
wise  affects  the  general  health,  the  flesh  is  not  un- 
fitted for  human  food,  and  the  wise  thing  is  to 
slaughter  the  animal  so  affected  at  the  first  symp- 
toms of  the  ailment. 

The  preventive  treatment  suggested  by  the  ac- 
cepted life  history  of  the  tapeworm  is  to  keep  dogs 
and  other  canines  off  sheep  pastures  or  to  treat 
them  frequently  enough  to  keep  them  free  from 
adult  worms.  This  is  comparatively  easy  both  be- 
cause of  the  small  number  of  dogs  and  the  ease  of 
treating  them.  A  standard  remedy  is  one  dram  of 
extract  of  male  shield  fern,  given  in  a  small  amount 
of  milk.  The  dog  should  first  be  fasted  for  twelve 
hours,  and  within  two  hours  after  the  administration 
of  the  medicine,  be  given  an  ounce  of  castor  oil.  This 
should  be  allowed  to  act  before  any  solid  food  is  given. 
It  is  recommended  to  repeat  this  treatment  once  a 
month  until  a  complete  eradication  of  the  tapeworm 
is  effected.     Of  course,  marauding  dogs  must  be  kept 


280  Sheep-Farming 

off  the  pastures.     A  long-range  gun  is  a  fairly  efficient 
means  of  doing  this. 

Tapeworms  of  the  sheep.  —  There  are  two  tape- 
worms which  in  their  adult  form  inhabit  the  intes- 
tines of  sheep.  The  outward  symptoms  are  the  same 
with  either.  In  fact,  the  symptoms  from  the  presence 
of  tapeworms  so  nearly  resemble  those  resulting 
from  invasions  of  stomach  with  other  intestinal  worms 
that  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  between  them.  A 
postmortem  examination  only  insures  a  correct  diag- 
nosis. The  symptoms  resulting  from  any  internal 
parasitic  invasion  are  those  of  general  debility,  loss 
of  condition,  paleness  of  skin  and  mucous  membranes, 
and  finally  great  weakness.  However,  lambs  oc- 
casionally die  from  stomach  worms  without  any  of 
these  symptoms  in  marked  degree.  A  few  minor 
symptoms  may  assist  the  expert  shepherd  in  deter- 
mining the  presence  of  the  larger  and  more  common 
tapeworm,  toBnia  expansa.  Sheep  suffering  from 
its  presence  have  an  abnormal  appetite.  Segments 
of  the  worm  may  at  times  be  found  in  the  excrement, 
and  in  long-suffering  cases  diarrhea  may  prevail. 
This  latter  symptom,  however,  may  result  from  other 
intestinal  worms.  Upon  postmortem,  this  tapeworm 
will  be  found  in  the  small  intestine.  Not  infrequently 
there  will  be  several,  each  several  feet  long.  When  it 
seems  certain  that  individuals  are  harboring  this 
particular  tapeworm,  treatment  may  be  given  with 
a  reasonable  degree  of  success.     Several  remedies 


Diseases  281 

have  been  recommended.  Those  given  in  the  form  of 
a  drench  are  more  efficient  than  solids,  as  the  latter 
are  apt  to  pass  into  the  first  stomach.  An  efficient 
remedy  is  two  drams  of  extract  of  male  shield  fern 
administered  in  a  half  cup  of  milk,  and  followed  in 
two  hours  by  four  ounces  of  castor  oil.  This  is  the 
dose  for  mature  sheep.  Lambs  should  be  given 
correspondingly  smaller  doses. 

The  second  tapeworm,  toenia  fimhriata,  is  much 
smaller,  not  exceeding  six  inches  in  length.  Yet 
it  is  a  really  more  damaging  parasite,  as  it  often 
plugs  the  biliary  duct.  On  account  of  its  location,  it 
cannot  be  reached  by  medicine,  so  that  all  remedial 
treatment  is  in  vain.  The  only  rational  course  to 
pursue  with  a  flock  suffering  from  invasion  of  this 
parasite  is  to  send  all  that  can  be  gotten  into  suitable 
condition  to  the  market.  The  preventive  treat- 
ment is  the  same  as  for  all  intestinal  worms  given 
in  the  following  paragraph. 

Intestinal  roundworms.  —  There  are  several  of 
these,  but  as  they  usually  appear  together  and  the 
method  of  infection  and  nature  of  external  symptoms 
are  the  same,  there  is  no  reason  for  treating  of  them 
separately  or  even  naming  them,  except  to  call  at- 
tention to  a  specific  symptom  of  one  species,  that 
producing  nodular  disease,  or  "knotty  gut,"  as  it  is 
generally  known.  The  life  history  has  not  been 
generally  worked  out,  but  from  the  vast  number  in 
comparatively  young  sheep,  it  seems  probable  that 


282  Sheep-Farming 

they  multiply  within  the  sheep.  The  nodular  dis* 
ease  is  due  to  the  invasion  of  the  wall  of  the  intestine 
by  the  embryo  of  a  worm  that  in  its  adult  form  lives 
in  the  passage  of  the  intestine.  It  may  be  possible 
by  the  persistent  use  of  worm  medicine  to  dislodge 
the  mature  worm,  but  nothing  can  be  done  to  remove 
the  nodules.  This,  as  other  of  the  intestinal  worms, 
is  communicated  from  one  sheep  to  another  through 
the  medium  of  the  pastures.  As  the  little  lambs 
begin  to  graze  after  their  mothers,  they  pick  up  the 
eggs,  or  young,  expelled  in  the  excrement  of  the  old 
sheep.  Unless  it  is  established  that  these  parasites 
of  the  sheep  live  from  year  to  year  outside  the  sheep, 
it  will  be  comparatively  easy  to  grow  a  flock  free 
from  them  by  raising  the  lambs  in  the  winter  and 
never  allowing  them  to  follow  old  sheep  upon  the 
pastures.  It  is  a  safeguard  to  have  cultivated  crops, 
as  rape,  rye,  oats,  and  peas,  and  even  new  seedings 
of  timothy  and  clover,  for  the  ewes  and  lambs.  Fre- 
quent changing  of  the  flock  from  one  field  to  another 
is  also  a  safeguard  from  infection  of  the  lamb.  Have 
two  pastures,  or  better  three,  for  each  flock  and  leave 
them  in  each  pasture  but  one  week  at  a  time. 

Medicinal  preventives.  —  A  very  large  number 
of  proprietary  medicines  has  been  offered  flock- 
owners  as  remedies  for  internal  parasites.  Doubt- 
less each  of  them  contains  one  or  more  vermifuges, 
but  they  are  usually  mixed  with  so  much  other 
material  and  are  sold  at  such  high  prices,  compared 


Diseases  283 

with  the  cost  of  well-known  vermicides,  that  their 
use  is  hardly  to  be  recommended.  Moreover,  their 
value  is  greater  as  a  preventive  than  as  a  cure. 
They  retard  the  development  of  worms  when  fed 
regularly,  after  the  lambs  have  begun  to  graze,  more 
effectively  than  they  remove  the  worms  after  a 
serious  infection.  The  invasion  of  the  lambs  by  all  in- 
ternal parasites  commences  very  soon  after  they  begin 
grazing  with  old  sheep  upon  pastures  favorable  to 
their  transmission.  It  was  formerly  thought  to  be  by' 
way  of  surface  water,  but  it  is  certain  the  invasion  of 
lambs  may  take  place  upon  perfectly  dry  pastures  and 
in  a  dry  season.  Lambs,  however,  are  troubled  more 
in  wet  years,  but  because  of  their  lower  vitality  rather 
than  on  account  of  the  greater  invasion  of  parasites. 

Medicines  that  have  proved  of  value  as  preven- 
tives are  tobacco,  copperas,  turpentine,  and  blue 
vitriol.  The  former  three  may  be  fed  in  connection 
with  salt.  Use  one  pound  of  salt  to  four  pounds  of 
tobacco  leaves,  equal  weights  of  salt  and  copperas, 
or  salt  saturated  with  turpentine.  These  may  be 
kept  before  the  flock  all  the  time.  The  blue  vitriol 
is  best  administered  in  solution,  one  dram  to  each 
sheep.  This  has  proved  a  valuable  remedy  in  ad- 
vanced cases  of  stomach- worm  invasion.  Gasoline 
in  one-  to  three-dram  doses  administered  with  milk 
has  also  proved  a  valuable  remedy. 

The  stomach  worm.  —  If  any  one  worm  is  the 
cause  of  more  deaths  than  any  other,  it  is  the  twisted 


284  Sheep-Farming 

stomach  worm,  so  called  because  of  its  resemblance 
to  a  barber  pole.  It  invades  the  fourth  stomach  and 
may  easily  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  either  floating 
in  the  watery  contents  or  attached  to  the  wall.  The 
symptoms  and  treatment  are  the  same  as  given  above 
for  intestinal  roundworms. 

It  should  be  understood  that  whenever  even  one 
lamb  in  a  flock  is  known  to  be  invaded  by  any  of 
these  parasites  that  it  is  strongly  probable  that  many, 
if  not  all,  both  old  and  young,  are  infested.  The 
old  sheep  do  not  show  the  symptoms  to  the  same  ex- 
tent as  the  lambs,  simply  because  of  their  greater 
vitality. 

Lungworms,  hoose,  husk.  —  Worms  in  the  lungs 
are  not  as  common  as  stomach  and  intestinal  worms, 
yet  are  not  infrequently  found.  Usually  the  same 
animals  are  harboring  the  stomach  and  intestinal 
worms.  The  same  general  symptoms  of  emacia- 
tion are  manifest  as  in  all  cases  of  internal  parasites : 
paleness  of  skin  and  mucous  membranes  and  great 
weakness.  The  only  distinguishing  symptoms  that 
evidences  the  presence  of  the  lungworm  is  a  low,  husky 
cough,  from  which  the  name  husk  or  hoose  arises. 
There  is  no  successful  means  of  removing  lungworm, 
but  persistent  administration  of  turpentine  will  pre- 
vent its  multiplication,  and  high  feeding  w^ill  fit 
many  of  an  affected  flock  for  slaughter.  The  pres- 
ence of  the  lungworm,  so  long  as  the  sheep  can  be 
gotten  fat  enough  to  slaughter,  does  not  deleteriously 


Diseases 


285 


affect  the  flock ;  hence  the  best  disposition  to  make  of 
it  is  to  send  the  flock  to  market.  The  worms  are 
communicated  to  lambs  through  the  medium  of  the 
grass  and  first  pass  to  the  stomach.  It  is  while  the 
young  are  in  the  stomach  that  they  may  be  destroyed 
by  medicine,  the  same  as  prescribed  for  stomach  and 
intestinal  worms. 

Grub  in  the  head.  -  One  of  the  bugbears  of  many    ^ 
flockowners  is  the  grub  of  the  gadfly.     The  fly  is 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  blowfly  and  moves  so 
rapidly  as  almost  to  elude  detection.     During  mid- 
summer it  harasses  the  flock  by  darting  into  the  nos- 
tril and  depositing  the  minute  grubs.     These  crawl 
up  the  nostril  to  the  end  of  the  passages  and  attach 
themselves  to  the  mucous  membrane.     There  they 
pass  one  stage  of  their  development.     During  this 
period,  they  do  not  seriously  injure  nor  are  they  a 
serious  annoyance  to  their  host.     It  is  only  when 
they  have  reached  their  stage  of  development  for 
changing  their  habitat,  and  begin  to  move  about, 
that  they  annoy  the  sheep.     The  sheep  then  sneezes 
violently,  rears  upon  its  hind  feet,  and  appears  m 
great  distress.     Its  distress,  however,  is  not  as  great 
as  its  behavior  would  indicate.     The  grub  really  does 
no  injury.     On  the  other  hand,  I  do  not  think,  as 
some  have  contended,  that  it  is  beneficial.     But  I  am 
sure  there  is  no  call  for  any  attempt  to  dislodge  the 
grub.     Any  treatment  with  that  end  in  view,  such 
as  pouring  turpentine  or  coal  oil  into  the  nostrils,  is 


286  Sheep-Farming 

far  more  annoying  to  the  sheep  than  the  presence 
of  the  grub.  I  do  not  think  they  ever  burrow  into 
the  brain,  as  many  flockowners  believe.  Although 
they  are  very  common,  I  doubt  whether  they  ever 
kill  a  sheep.  I  have  seen  over  twenty  in  the  base  of 
the  horns  of  an  old  Merino  ram  that  was  dehorned, 
and  he  showed  no  annoyance  from  their  presence 
whatever.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  they  are 
one  cause  of  catarrh. 

Catarrh,  —  This  is  one  of  the  unpleasant  ailments, 
but  is  not  a  primary  disease  and  is  not  to  be  treated 
directly.  Chronic  cases  usually  indicate  a  low  state 
of  vitality.  Open-wooled  sheep  that  are  exposed  to 
rains  and  are  compelled  to  lie  on  cold,  damp  ground 
suffer  most  from  it.  The  English  breeds  trans- 
planted to  this  country  are  far  more  subject  to  it  than 
Merinos.  Acute  cases  may  arise  from  confinement 
in  ill-ventilated  stables  or  exposure  to  a  single 
storm.  Good  care  and  feeding  is  the  best  treatment 
in  either  case.  However,  tonics,  as  ginger,  gentian, 
and  copperas,  may  be  used  with  good  effect. 

Dysentery,  scours.  —  This  is  another  of  the  second- 
ary ailments ;  that  is,  it  is  a  result,  rather  than  a 
disease  in  itself,  usually,  of  a  digestive  disturbance. 
Sudden  changes  of  pasture  or  feed  and  overeating 
cause  temporary  derangement,  though  it  may  be 
severe  enough  to  cause  death.  Frequently  lambs  or 
even  mature  sheep  turned  upon  rank  fall  pasture 
after  a  long  fast  in  a  stockyard  or  on  railway  cars 


Diseases  287 

suffer  violently  in  this  way.  Here  prevention  is  far 
better  than  any  cure.  Sheep  or  lambs  shipped  long 
distances  should  first  be  given  dry  feed  and  very 
cautiously  turned  upon  rank  pastures.  When  over- 
eating of  pasture  is  the  cause,  laudanum  in  table- 
spoonful  doses  for  mature  sheep,  less  for  lambs,  is  a 
standard  remedy.  This  should  be  administered 
with  milk  or  water.  A  teaspoonful  of  ginger  in  a 
cup  of  warm  water  is  also  beneficial  and  should  be 
resorted  to  whenever  there  is  failing  appetite.  If 
the  scouring  is  a  result  of  overeating  of  grain,  with- 
holding all  feed  for  twenty-four  hours  is  good  treat- 
ment. If  the  scouring  persists  longer,  the  use  of 
laudanum  should  be  resorted  to.  When  scouring 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  intestinal  worms,  the  first 
step  in  the  treatment  is  to  remove  the  worms  by 
means  of  the  remedies  prescribed  under  the  dis- 
cussion of  intestinal  parasites.  There  is  also  an  in- 
fectious dysentery  that  is  to  be  treated  by  the  use  of 
antiseptics.  Tablespoonful  doses  of  some  of  the  coal- 
tar  antiseptics  given  at  intervals  of  six  hours  will 
prove  effective. 

Constipation,  stretches.  —  This  is  the  reverse  diges- 
tive disturbance  due  to  long  confinement  to  a  dry 
ration  with  little  variety.  Sheep  confined  to  timothy 
hay,  straw,  or  corn  fodder,  with  corn  only  for  grain, 
suffer  in  this  way,  especially  pregnant  ewes.  The 
stretching  is  a  symptom  of  constipation.  The  rem- 
edy is  a  physic  of  salts  or  oil  followed  by  a  change 


288  Sheep-Farming 

of  diet  and  a  stomach  tonic.  Wheat  bran  seasoned 
with  salt  and  ginger  is  good.  If  any  green  feed, 
silage,  or  roots  are  available,  use  them  and  give  the 
sheep  access  to  salt  and  water. 

Colic.  —  Sheep  occasionally  suffer  with  colic.  It 
is  due  to  derangement  of  digestion  and  should  be  so 
treated.  Determine  the  cause  of  the  disorder  and 
remove  it.  As  a  temporary  relief,  a  teaspoonful  of 
ginger  administered  with  a  quart  of  water  as  warm 
as  the  animal  can  take  it  is  beneficial.  It  is  rarely 
serious  unless  accompanied  by  bloating.  This  is 
due  to  an  acid  condition  of  the  stomach.  In  such 
cases,  an  alkali  should  be  administered.  A  table- 
spoonful  of  soda  in  warm  water  will  usually  give 
relief.  In  extreme  cases,  a  trocar  or  knife  should  be 
used  to  remove  the  gas.  This  is  a  comparatively 
safe  operation  on  the  sheep.  The  puncture  should 
be  made  on  the  left  side  between  the  last  rib  and 
point  of  hip. 

Abortion,  slinking.  —  This  is  not  uncommon  in 
isolated  cases  as  the  result  of  injury  or  fright.  Such 
instances  need  cause  no  alarm,  and  call  for  no  special 
treatment  when  the  afterbirth  comes  away  promptly. 
In  cases  of  delayed  expulsion  of  the  lamb  bed,  it 
should  be  removed.  This  can  usually  be  done  by 
flushing  the  womb  with  warm  water.  The  water 
should  have  been  boiled  and  allowed  to  cool  to  the 
proper  temperature  and  have  some  good  antiseptic 
added. 


Diseases  289 

Contagious  abortion,  however,  does  appear  in 
jflocks.  Whether  it  is  related  to  the  same  trouble 
among  cows  is  not  known,  but  is  doubtless  of  the 
same  nature,  infectious,  and  should  be  so  treated. 
Individuals  not  affected  should  be  removed  to  a 
clean  stable  and  every  precaution  taken  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  the  infection  to  them.  Ewes  so 
affected  should  not  be  bred  again,  and  there  is  great 
danger  that  the  ram  used  with  the  flock  is  infected. 
He  should  certainly  be  used  with  only  a  few  ewes  the 
first  year  as  a  test. 

Eversion  of  uterus,  casting  withers.  —  This  is  a 
displacement  of  the  womb  with  protrusion  of  the 
neck.  It  is  due  to  a  weakness  of  the  sustaining 
ligaments.  It  usually  precedes  yeaning,  but  may 
persist  afterwards.  Treatment  is  necessary  or  the 
sufferer  will  sooner  or  later  die.  If  the  animal  is  in 
proper  condition  and  not  too  far  advanced  in  preg- 
nancy, she  may  be  slaughtered.  As  a  temporary 
relief,  the  protruding  parts  should  be  thoroughly 
cleansed  with  a  mild  solution  of  alum  water  and 
replaced.  To  do  this,  cover  the  compressed  fingers 
with  a  clean,  soft  cloth  and  press  gently  but  firmly 
upon  the  protruding  organ.  It  is  helpful  to  lay  the 
ewe  upon  her  back  and  elevate  the  hind  parts.  The 
organ  is  easily  returned,  but  not  so  easily  retained  in 
place.  To  prevent  the  ewe  from  expelling  it  again, 
place  her  in  a  narrow  stall  with  hind  feet  much 
elevated.     Tying  a  cord  tightly  about  the  flank  and 


290  Sheep-Farming 

loin  is  some  restraint.  As  a  last  resort,  take  two  or 
three  stitches  through  the  lips  of  the  vulva.  In 
case  of  pregnant  ewes,  watchfulness  must  be  exer- 
cised to  remove  them  before  parturition.  Rarely 
is  a  permanent  cure  of  this  trouble  effected.  Such 
ewes  should  not  be  retained  in  the  breeding  flock. 

Garget,  caked  udder.  —  There  are  different  forms 
of  this  trouble,  arising  from  different  causes :  con- 
gestion with  milk,  chilling  or  bruising  of  udder,  and 
infection.  The  latter  is  by  far  the  most  serious. 
In  such  cases,  seldom  if  ever  can  the  affected  udder 
be  saved.  Treatment  should  be  given,  however, 
to  save  the  life  of  the  animal.  Inject  through  the 
teat  a  saturated  solution  of  boric  acid  and  apply  a 
sharp  blister.  Give  the  patient  a  mild  physic  and 
protect  against  unfavorable  weather  condition.  As 
soon  as  an  abscess  forms  in  the  udder,  open  it,  so  as 
to  give  free  drainage,  and  wash  out  frequently  with 
the  boric  acid  solution.  In  the  milder  forms  of 
garget,  carefully  draw  all  milk  and  apply  tincture  of 
belladonna  or  tincture  of  iodine  orcarbolized  oil  and 
heat  with  a  saucer  kept  warm  in  a  vessel  of  hot  water. 
This  treatment  should  be  persisted  in  until  recovery 
is  effected.  Feed  very  lightly  until  inflammation  has 
subsided.  A  complete  recovery  may  be  expected  in 
these  cases. 

White  dysentery  in  lambs.  —  This  is  an  infectious 
trouble  and  generally  fatal.  It  attacks  lambs  a  few 
hours  or  at  most  only  a  few  days  old.     Thus  far  pre- 


Diseases  291 

ventive  treatment  has  been  more  effective  than  reme- 
dial. As  soon  as  the  disease  appears,  remove  all  ewes 
that  have  not  yeaned  to  a  clean  stable,  thoroughly 
disinfect  their  udders  and  keep  the  floor  of  the  new 
stable  freshly  bedded.  It  is  a  wise  precaution  also 
to  sprinkle  the  stable  floor  frequently  with  a  good 
disinfectant.  Lambs  that  die  with  this  trouble 
should  be  buried  deeply  or  burned,  and  the  stable 
thoroughly  disinfected  before  other  lambs  are  allowed 
to  be  born  in  it. 

Joint-ill.— This  is  an  infectious  trouble.  In- 
fection enters  through  the  navel  soon  after  birth. 
Remedial  treatment  is  of  little  value.  Whenever 
one  case  appears,  it  should  be  taken  as  a  warning 
that  the  stable  is  infected.  Thorough  cleansing  of 
the  stable  or  bandaging  each  lamb  as  born  so  as  to 
protect  it  against  infection  is  the  only  safeguard. 
If  the  season  is  far  enough  advanced  to  make  out- 
door yeaning  safe,  turn  the  flock  upon  the  pasture 
and  keep  all  the  newly  born  lambs  away  from  the 
infected  stable. 

Lamb  cholera.  —  This  malady  is  sometimes  a  very 
fatal  scourge  in  flocks,  and  its  cause  is  not  yet  known. 
It  attacks  lambs  six  to  ten  weeks  old.  They  may 
be  in  stables  or  on  pasture.  The  only  constant 
condition  that  I  have  discovered  is  that  it  attacks 
only  fat  lambs.  But  not  all  fat  lambs  by  any  means 
are  attacked.  The  lamb  dies  in  a  spasm,  usually 
so  soon  after  the  attack  as  to  escape  notice.     Th6 


292  Sheep-Farming 

only  treatment  I  have  ever  found  that  saved  a  lamb 
once  attacked  was  heroic  bleeding,  and  that  has  not 
always  been  effective.  Feeding  ewes  lime  or  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  has  been  heralded  as  a  preventive 
by  some,  but  I  have  known  heavy  losses  in  flocks  to 
which  these  have  been  fed,  while  others  not  so  treated 
escaped  any  loss.  I  know  of  no  preventive  except 
scanty  feeding  of  the  ewe,  and  no  reliable  cure.  I 
recommend  bleeding.  Cut  off  the  tail,  if  it  has  not 
already  been  done,  or  open  the  vein  on  the  inside  of 
the  fore  leg  by  making  a  slit  lengthwise  in  it  and  press- 
ing the  finger  upon  the  vein  between  opening  and  the 
heart  to  force  the  flow  of  blood.  A  half  pint  may  be 
drawn  from  an  eight  weeks'  old  lamb. 

Calculi,  gravel.  —  Mature  rams  that  are  highly 
fed,  also  young  lambs,  occasionally  suffer  from  an 
accumulation  of  lime  granules  in  the  urethra,  usually 
at  the  double  curve  where  the  retractor  muscle 
attaches.  This  is  just  above  the  rear  attachment  of 
the  scrotum.  Careful  manipulation  with  old  rams 
may  effect  movement  of  the  calculi  so  that  they  will 
pass  out,  though  usually  a  surgical  operation  is 
necessary.  The  calculi  should  be  located,  then  an 
incision  made  lengthwise  of  the  urethra  directly 
over  the  obstruction  and  as  small  as  its  removal  will 
permit.  If  skillfully  performed,  and  with  antiseptic 
precautions,  recovery  may  be  expected  in  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  cases.  Recovery  is  more  certain  when  the 
opening  can  be  made  in  such  a  position  that  the 


Diseases 


293 


urine  will  not  readily  escape  through  the  incision. 
With  animalsnot  especially  valuable,  the  wisestcourse 
is  to  slaughter  at  once.     If  done  before  the  general 
health  is  affected,  the  flesh  will  not  be  unfit  for  food. 
This    trouble    not    infrequently  affects    highly  fed 
winter  lambs.     They  stand  with  arched  back,  appear 
stiff  in  hind  quarters,  and  urine  dribbles  from  them. 
In  cases  in  which  lambs  were  too  small  for  market,  I 
have  cut  the  urethra  off  just  above  the  scrotum 
and  drawn  the  end  out  through  the  skin,  letting  the 
urine  escape  in  this  way  until  the  lamb  was  large 
enough   to   slaughter.     Occasionally   calculi   gather 
at  the  end  of  the  penis  of  old  rams.     These  are  more 
easily  removed.     Sometimes  shearers  cut  the  long 
hairs  that  protrude  from  the  urinal  vent.    The  stubs 
then  grow  into  the  tissues  and  produce  an  annoymg 
sore.     Usually  careful  examination  will  suggest  the 
treatment  necessary. 

Entropia,  sore  eyes.  —  Lambs  are  born,  frequently, 
especially  Merinos,  with  one  or  both  eyelids  turned 
under  so  that  the  lashes  irritate  the  eye.  In  a  very 
few  days,  the  eye  shows  inflammation  and  the  cheek 
below  the  eye  will  be  wet.  It  is  usually  the  lower  lid. 
The  trouble  is  easily  remedied  by  taking  a  shallow 
stitch  in  the  skin  near  the  edge  of  the  offending  eyelid 
and  then  in  the  skin  of  the  cheek  an  inch  below, 
and  tying  the  thread  so  as  to  hold  the  lashes  away 
from  the  eye.  Usually  nothing  further  is  necessary 
The  stitch  will  cut  its  way  out  within  a  tew  days  and 


294  Sheep-Farming 

the  lid  will  take  a  normal  position,  and  the  irritated 
eye  recover. 

Pink  eye.  —  Sheep  suffer  from  infectious  sore  eyes 
similar  to  an  infection  of  horses  and  cattle.  Whether 
it  is  communicable  from  one  species  to  another  is  not 
yet  determined.  Most  cases  yield  to  mild  antiseptic 
washes,  such  as  one  per  cent  solutions  of  the  coal-tar 
antiseptics.  Affected  animals  should  be  kept  con- 
fined in  dark  stables,  and  away  from  other  sheep,  so 
as  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  ailment.  Care  should 
be  taken  also  not  to  feed  the  affected  animals  dusty 
hay,  as  the  dust  would  aggravate  the  inflammation. 
Burned  alum  blown  into  the  eye  is  an  effective  remedy 
when  the  ailment  has  advanced  to  a  stage  where  a 
film  covers  the  eye. 

Goiter.  —  This  is  an  enlargement  of  the  thyroid 
gland.  It  is  a  result  of  improper  feeding  of  the  dam. 
There  is  no  remedial  treatment  except  a  surgical 
removal  of  the  gland.  More  skill  and  technical 
knowledge  than  the  average  flockmaster  has  is 
necessary  for  the  operation.  Lambs  so  affected 
should  be  sent  to  market  as  early  as  they  can  be  fitted, 
as  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  the  goiter  enlarges 
with  advancing  age.  To  prevent  its  appearance, 
pregnant  ewes  should  have  plenty  of  outdoor  exercise 
and  be  fed  a  well-balanced  ration. 

External  parasites.  —  The  external  parasites  from 
which  sheep  suffer  annoyance  are  ticks,  lice,  scab 
mites,  and  maggots  of  the  blowfly. 


Diseases  295 

The  scab.  —  This  is  produced  by  a  minute  insect, 
acarus,  that  burrows  into  the  skin,  causing  great 
irritation.  The  suffering  animal  digs  itself  with  its 
hind  feet  or  rubs  against  some  object  until  the  skin 
is  lacerated.  The  scab  that  develops  at  such  spots 
gives  name  to  the  ailment.  The  mite  is  so  small  as 
not  to  be  seen  on  the  sheep,  but  may  be  seen  as  a 
minute  speck  on  white  paper.  The  cause  of  the  ail- 
ment is  now  thoroughly  understood  and  effective 
remedies  known.  The  ailment  yields  readily  to 
any  one  of  the  several  dips :  a  decoction  of  tobacco 
stems ;  lime  and  sulphur,  such  as  is  now  widely  used 
for  spraying  trees;  a  solution  of  coal-tar  products 
widely  advertised  for  the  purpose;  also  a  sulphur 
and  arsenic  compound. 

Fortunately,  scab  is  pretty  well  eradicated  from 
American  flocks,  especially  in  eastern  states,  though 
not  entirely  so.  Flocks  contract  it  only  through  con- 
tact with  affected  animals,  or  with  objects  against 
which  they  have  rubbed.  Any  appearance  of  the 
ailment  should  be  promptly  treated.  The  writer 
once  purchased  some  feeding  lambs  from  New  Mex- 
ico late  in  the  fall.  They  were  dipped  under  govern- 
ment inspection,  but  the  scab  broke  out  during  the 
winter.  I  used  crude  petroleum  freely  on  all  affected 
points,  rubbing  it  in  thoroughly  with  a  stiff  brush. 
This  held  it  in  abeyance  until  the  weather  became 
warm  enough  to  warrant  dipping.  The  entire  flock 
was  disposed  of  in  the  spring.     The  following  winter. 


296  Sheep-Farming 

other  sheep  were  placed  in  the  same  stable,  and  no 
further  appearance  of  the  ailment  was  seen. 

The  tick.  —  Ticks,  to  the  discredit  of  flockowners, 
are  still  very  common  and  are  the  cause  of  great  loss 
not  directly  through  death,  but  by  interfering  with 
the  thrift  of  the  animals.  As  with  the  scab  mite, 
there  is  no  excuse  for  permitting  them  to  annoy  the 
flock.  They  yield  readily  to  the  same  treatment  as 
the  scab  mite.  A  second  dipping  will  be  necessary 
to  catch  those  that  were  in  the  egg  stage  at  the  time 
of  the  first  dipping.  Ten  days  should  intervene 
between  the  two. 

Sheep  lice.  —  The  sheep  louse  is  less  common  than 
the  tick,  yet  is  occasionally  found,  especially  upon 
goats.  It  is  much  smaller  than  the  tick,  but  large 
enough  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  The  same  dips 
recommended  for  the  tick  will  eradicate  the  louse. 

Maggots.  —  These  are  the  larval  form  of  the  blow- 
fly. They  are  a  serious  annoyance  and  cause  of 
loss  during  the  hot  summer  months,  especially 
among  flocks  suffering  from  any  hoof  ailment. 
They  also  annoy  rams  or  any  other  sheep  with  sores 
or  with  offensive  odor  about  them.  A  sheep  once 
invaded  by  them  needs  prompt  and  persistent  atten- 
tion, or  it  will  soon  succumb.  Eggs  will  hatch  within 
twenty-four  hours,  and  when  flies  have  once  gotten 
after  a  sheep,  they  persist  in  depositing  eggs  upon  it 
until  it  succumbs.  Flocks  so  annoyed  should  be 
removed  to  a  new  field.     The  removal  is  best  made 


Diseases  297 

after  night,  so  that  the  flies  will  not  follow.  In- 
fested animals  should  be  removed  to  a  dark  stable. 
Gasoline  is  an  effective  and  economical  remedy  for 
destroying  the  maggots,  and  air-slacked  lime  sprin- 
kled over  the  infected  point  is  the  best  guard  against 
further  deposits  of  eggs.  Turpentine  and  tar  have 
been  much  used  for  this  purpose,  but  are  not  as  valu- 
able as  the  gasoline  and  lime. 

Aphtha.  —  This  is  an  affection  of  the  lips.  Unless 
treated,  it  spreads  to  the  lining  of  the  mouth,  over  the 
face,  and  may  appear  upon  the  feet  and  legs.  It 
first  appears  as  small,  red,  and  slightly  elevated  spots 
upon  the  lips.  Later,  watery  vesicles  appear.  After 
they  burst,  scabs  develop.  It  is  frequently  seen  on 
nursing  lambs.  It  will  then  also  be  found  upon  the 
teats  and  udders  of  their  mothers.  It  yields  some- 
what readily  to  antiseptic  treatment.  Use  a  car- 
bolic ointment,  or  if  scabs  have  formed,  soften  them 
with  a  two  per  cent  solution  of  some  of  the  carbolic 
dips.  Persist  in  this  treatment  until  a  cure  is  effected. 
When  the  teats  of  nursing  ewes  are  affected,  use  a 
dressing  of  boric  acid  with  eight  parts  lard,  as  the 
odor  of  carbolic  acid  will  prevent  lambs  from  nursing. 
It  may  be  necessary  to  hand-milk  the  ewes  and  feed 
the  lambs  for  a  few  days. 

Wool-pulling.  —  During  the  winter,  in  flocks  that 
are  highly  fed  on  corn,  there  will  be  individuals  that 
pull  the  wool  from  their  sides,  giving  the  flock  a  very 
ragged  appearance,  and  causing  no  inconsiderable 


298  Sheep-Farming 

loss  of  wool.  In  such  cases,  there  will  be  found  to  be 
small  eruptions  on  the  skin.  Change  the  diet  to  a 
more  laxative  and  nitrogenous  one  and  rub  mercurial 
ointment  into  the  skin  at  the  affected  points.  The 
trouble  will  disappear  when  the  flock  goes  to  pasture. 
Another  cause  of  loss  of  wool  is  lying  upon  heating  ma- 
nure. Still  another  cause  is  parturient  fever.  The 
treatment  in  both  these  cases  is  to  remove  the  cause. 

Cotted  wool.  —  Felting  of  the  fleece  is  the  result 
of  some  constitutional  disturbance,  that  checks  the 
natural  flow  of  oil,  thereby  allowing  the  fibers  to 
felt.  Any  serious  ill  health  that  reduces  the  con- 
dition of  the  sheep  may  be  the  cause.  The  only 
remedy  is  to  restore  the  sheep  to  good  health.  The 
trouble  may  not  appear  another  year. 

Administration  of  medicines.  —  Medicines  should 
never  be  administered  through  the  nose.  Fluid  medi- 
cines that  it  is  desired  should  pass  directly  to  the 
fourth  stomach  should  be  administered  with  the  sheep 
standing.  Secure  a  long,  slender-necked  bottle  and 
a  funnel  that  will  fit  it ;  a  graduated  measuring  glass 
should  also  be  provided.  Let  the  sheep  to  be  treated 
back  into  a  corner.  Step  astride  of  it  and  with  the 
left  hand  under  the  lower  jaw  elevate  the  mouth 
just  enough  so  that  medicine  will  run  toward  the 
throat.  Insert  the  bottle  in  the  side  of  the  mouth, 
taking  care  not  to  pour  into  the  mouth  at  once  more 
than  the  animal  can  easily  swallow.  Fatalities 
have  resulted  from  gasoline  passing  into  the  lungs. 


^  C.  State  College 


INDEX 


Abortion,  288. 

Caked  udder,  290. 

Administration  of  medicines,  298. 

Calculi,  292. 

Advantages  in  sheep-farming,  6. 

Carding  the  fleece;  273. 

After-birth,  removal  of,  189. 

Casting  of  withers,  289. 

Age,  how  to  tell,  165. 

Castration,  199. 

Alfalfa,  209,  250. 

Catarrh,  286. 

Altitude, 

Cheviot,  131. 

classification  based  on,  29,  32. 

Cholera  in  lambs,  291. 

influence  of,  30,  35. 

Classification  of  breeds,  28,  29,  32. 

American  sheep-breeding,  40,  42. 

Climate,  influence  on  wool,  37. 

Ancestry  of  present-day  sheep,  23. 

Clover  hay,  250,  251. 

Aphtha,  297. 

Colic,  288. 

Autumn  management  of  flock,  163. 

Combining  wool  and  mutton,  3,  12 

Conditions  for  sheep,  1. 

Bakewell,  Robert,  50,  52,  57,  153. 

Constipation,  287. 

Barley  for  fattening,  249. 

Corn  fodder,  180. 

Barns,  cost  of,  15. 

Corn  for  fattening,  247. 

Black-faced  Highland,  134. 

Corn  stover,  250,  251. 

Black  Top  Spanish  Merino,  44. 

Cotswold,  61,  73. 

Border  Leicester,  57. 

Cotted  wool,  298. 

Bran  for  fattening,  248. 

Cross-breeding,  160. 

Breeding,  importance  of,  for  show 

sheep,  263. 

Delaine  Merinos,  44. 

Breeding  ewes, 

Dickinson  Merinos,  44. 

age  of,  164. 

Dipping,  216,  295,  296. 

grain  for,  180. 

tank,  216. 

in  early  winter,  177. 

Diseases,  278. 

roughages  for,  179. 

Docking,  201. 

Breeds, 

Dorset,  127,  230. 

adaptability  of,  33,  138. 

Dysentery,  286. 

British  breeds,  49. 

white  dysentery  in  lambs,  290. 

classification  of,  28,  29,  32. 

formation  of,  28,  32. 

Early  lamb-raising. 

Breed  t>T)e,  139. 

buildings  for,  238. 

Buildings, 

butchering,  236. 

for  early  lambs,  238. 

feeding  early  lambs,  234. 

for  sheep  farms,  13. 

management  at  mating,  231. 

Butchering  early  lambs,  236. 

marketing,  235. 

Buying  sheep  to  fatten,  259. 

markets,  238. 

299 


300 


Index 


Early  lamb-raising,  shipping,  237. 

the  breeding  flock,  230. 

weight  of,  229. 
Eilman,  77,  153. 
Entropia,  293. 

Equipment  for  sheep  farms,  11. 
Eversion  of  uterus,  289. 
Ewe  flock,  uniformity  in,  145. 
Ewes, 

age  for  breeding,  164. 

condition  of,  177. 

culling,  158,  163. 

division  for  wintering,  183. 

dry,  194. 

feeding  while  suckling,  198. 

flushing,  168. 

grain  for,  180. 

marking  bred,  174. 

number  to  ram,  173. 

ova  produced  by,  171. 

silage  for,  179,  180,  252. 

sorting,  163. 

time  for  mating,  167. 

yearling,  167. 

Farms  for  sheep,  11. 
Fattening  sheep,  240. 
Feeding, 

breeding  ewes,  198. 

early  lambs,  234. 

quantity  to  feed,  257. 

show  sheep,  264,  265,  266,  268, 
269. 

systems  of,  256. 
Feed  racks,  16. 

troughs,  16. 
Fencing,  19. 
Fleece, 

carding,  272. 

coloring,  275. 

examining,  221. 

firming,  274. 

oiling,  273. 

treatment  of  long  wool,  274. 

trimming,  271. 

tying,  215. 

weights,  etc.,  223. 
Floor  space,  14. 

for  early  lamb-raising,  238. 
Flushing  ewes,  168. 


Foundation  stock, 

pure  breds  versus  grades,  135. 
selection  of,  137. 

Garget,  290. 
Gid,  278. 
Goiter,  296. 
Gravel,  292. 
Grazing  crops,  206. 
Green  crops,  5. 
Grub  in  head,  285. 

Habits  of  sheep,  21. 
Hampshire  sheep,  105. 
Hand-breeding,  174. 
Hoose,  284. 
Hot-house  lambs,  229. 

weight  of,  229  (see  Early  lamb- 
raising). 
Husk,  284. 

Imported  sheep,  popvilarity  of,  149. 
Improvement  of  flock, 

in  America,  174. 

opportunities  for,  147. 
In-breeding,  153. 
Increase  while  fattening,  cost  and 

value  of,  258. 
Intensive  farming,  sheep  for,  4. 

Judging  sheep,  141. 

Lambing, 

assisting,  190. 

delayed,  184. 

indications  of,  184. 
Lambs, 

attention  at  birth,  190. 

castration,  199. 

cholera,  291. 

developing,  159. 

docking,  201. 

dysentery  in,  290. 

early    (see    Early   lamb-raising). 

feeding     previous     to     weaning, 
197. 

hand-feeding,  195. 

hot-house,  229. 

marking,  191. 

quantity  of  grain  for,  197. 


Index 


301 


Lambs,  still-born,  189. 

weak,  193. 

weaning,  209. 
Lands  for  sheep,  3,  12,  13,  4. 
Leicester  sheep,  51,  54. 
Lice,  296. 

Lincoln  sheep,  67,  73. 
Line-breeding,  153. 

principles  of,  155. 
Lowland  breeds,  differences  in,  73. 
Lungworms,  284. 

Maggots,  296. 

Management,  essentials  in,  257. 
Market  grades  of  wool,  223. 
Marketing  early  lambs,  235. 
Markets  for  early  lambs,  238. 
Mating,  time  of,  167. 
Medicinal  preventives,  282. 
Medicines,  administration  of,    298. 
Merinos,  20,  25,  34,  42. 

classes  of,  44. 

French,  46. 

Oats  for  fattening,  247. 
Ova  produced  by  ewes,  171. 
Oxford  Down,  117. 

Parasites, 

external,  291. 

internal,  278. 
Pastures, 

changing,  205. 

shade  in,  204. 
Pasturing  sheep  with  horses,   263. 
Peas  for  fattening,  248. 
Pedigrees,  study  of,  150. 
Pink  eye,  294. 

Pregnancy,  duration  of,  183. 
Preparation  of  show  sheep,  262. 
Preventives,  medicinal,  282. 
Pulled  wool,  228. 
PuUing  wool,  297. 

Racks  for  feeding,  16. 
Rambouillets,  46,  47. 
Rams, 

judging  breeding  qualities,  148. 

number  of  ewes  for,  173. 

rations  for,  181. 


Rams,  selection  of,  147. 

testing,  151. 
Ranching,  2. 
Rape,  6,  207,  253,  254. 
Roughages  for  sheep,  5. 

for  ewes,  178. 

for  fattening,  249,  250,  251. 

Saxony  Merinos,  27. 
Scab,  295. 
Scours,  286. 
Shade,  12,  204. 

in  pastures,  204,  254. 
Shearing, 

before  fattening,  255. 

in  October,  256. 

manner  of,  213. 

stubble,  271. 

time  for,  212. 
Shepherds,  6. 

Shipping  early  lambs,  237. 
Show  sheep, 

after  treatment,  277. 

feeding,  264,  265. 

fleeces  of,  271. 

importance  of  breeding,  263. 

matching,  263. 

time  of  birth,  263. 

trimming,  271,  273. 
Shrinkage  of  wool,  223. 
Shropshire  sheep,  86. 
Silage,  for  ewes,  179,  180,  252. 
Slinking,  288. 
Soil,  influence  on  wool,  39. 
Sore  eyes,  293. 
Sorghum  hay,  252. 
Southdown,  74. 
Soy  beans,  for  fattening,  249. 
Spring  management  of  flock,   183. 
Stomach  worms,  283. 
Stretches,  287. 
Stubble  shearing,  271. 
Sturdy,  278. 
Suffolk,  126. 
Sugar  beets,  180. 

Summer     management     of     flock, 
202. 

Tank  for  dipping,  217. 
Tapeworms,  280. 


302 


Index 


Tar,  204. 
Ticks,  296. 
Trimming, 

deception  due  to,  142. 

frequency  of,  273. 
Troughs  for  feeding,  16. 

for  watering,  18,  203. 
Tunis  sheep,  230. 
Turn  sickness,  278. 
Twins,  care  of,  194. 

Unmerchantable  wool,  228. 
Uterus,  aversion  of,  289. 

Watering-troughs,  18,  203. 
Webb,  work  of,  79. 
Weeds,  eaten  by  sheep,  7. 
Weight  of  early  lambs,  229. 
Wheat  for  fattening,  249. 
Winter  management  of  flock,  175. 
Withers,  casting  of,  289. 


Wool, 

affected  by  altitude,  37. 

affected  by  climate,  37. 

affected  by  soil,  39. 

as  a  basis  of   classification,   28, 
29,  32. 

combined  with  mutton,  3,  12. 

cotted,  298. 

density  of,  219. 

market  grades,  223. 

pulled,  228. 

shrinkage,  223. 

territory,  39. 

twine  for,  215. 

unmerchantable,  228. 
Worms, 

guarding  against,  205. 

intestinal  roundworms,  281. 

lung,  284. 

stomach,  283. 

tape,  280, 


I^irled  in  tiie  United  States  of  America. 


